Thursday, October 31, 2019
UK and US Financial Reporting Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words
UK and US Financial Reporting Ethics - Essay Example There are several reasons that strongly support this argument. For sometime now, the U.S. Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) and its international counterpart (IASB), have made progress in reducing these disparities between U.S. GAAP and IFRS. (IFRS) accounting rules are set to be followed by all public companies falling under the European Union but about 100 other countries are either already applying or weighing them up. In light of the changing nature of the international market, it is important that comparable transactions between competing companies in different regions be reported in the same way or the differences be understood by these companies so as to be able to understand the financial performance of a competitor. â€Å"Ethical values provide the foundation on which a civilized society exists.†(Smith K, 2003). Managers are faced almost on a daily basis a multitude of decisions that have to take into account variables such as profitability, personal advant age and overall benefits to the community, in the overall context of the correctness of these decisions. However, if integrity is allowed to become one of the possible variables, then it is most likely that it will be the first to be sacrificed at the altar of expediency. The purpose of ethics therefore, is to encourage, " [persons] to abide by a code of conduct that facilitatespublic services" (Smith, K 2003). To that end, there are many accounting organizations that have come to realize the need to establish a practical set of ethical guidelines. The Institute of Management Accountants for example, have established an ethics hotline'. As part of the services offered, "ethics counselors offer confidential advice, solace and comfort to management accountants who may have no other place to turn to for help"(Smith, K 2003). It is not known whether there is are any similar arrangements within the United Kingdom, but there have been attempts to address the issue. This is evident from th e response of the United Kingdom Share Holders Association's response to the ' Ethics Standards Board Consultation Paper' of May 2002. In this response, it clarifies the inter-se relationship between professional and corporate responsibilities. The report highlights that, "professional status is an implied contract: to serve society over and beyond all specific duty to client or employee in consideration of the privileges and protection society extends to that profession" (Setting the Agenda for Ethics, 2002). Moreover, many companies are now appointing ethics officers, charged with monitoring the ethical standards of their company as well as for uncovering fraudulent activities. This trend is also partly due to the Sarbanes-Oxley Act enacted in the United States in the wake of the Enron, WorldCom and other scandals. Scope for malpractice exists because accounting practices differ considerably from country to country and the nature of these practices can, and are, exploited through 'creative accounting'. The United States follows to concept of 'substance over form, while the European Union believes in giving a ' true and fair view' of a company's financial status. However, both concepts though in vogue, are subjective in nature and offer considerable scope for manipulation of figures. Depreciation in the United Kingdom for example, is determined according to custom, with "convention and pragmatism, rather than exact rules [determining methods of
Tuesday, October 29, 2019
The Plama Membrane Essay Example for Free
The Plama Membrane Essay The plasma membrane exists in all living things for the simple reason that it serves vital functions without which the cell cannot survive.            The plasma membrane is composed primarily of a phospholipid bilayer which is made up of hydrophobic lipid â€Å"tails†that point inwards and hydrophilic phosphate â€Å"heads†that are positioned so that one layer is in contact with the extracellular fluid and the other with the cytosol. The membrane may thus be thought of as the cells â€Å"skin†enclosing and protecting the organelles and the nucleus. The cell (and its components) however, is not cut off from its environment because the plasma membrane is semipermeable, allowing specific substances necessary for the normal functioning of the cell to pass through. Also, embedded in the bilayer are proteins that assist the passage of substances that normally would not be able to pass through by simple diffusion. A good example would be the sodium-potassium pump (Krogh, 2003) which is responsible for the active transport of these ions. Both potassium and sodium need to move up their concentration gradients (into and out of the cell, respectively) and since both are ions that would be difficult to transport through the hydrophobic interior of the bilayer, such transport needs to be facilitated by the use of proteins that will serve as channels through which these ions can pass through. This therefore illustrates as well the regulatory functions of the plasma membrane in that it allows transport into and out of the cell in a selective manner (Postlethwait Hopson, 2006).            Proteins that lie on the surface of the plasma membrane also serve a role in facilitating communication between the cell and its environment, including other cells. Lymphocytes (white blood cells) for example, differentiate foreign cells from that of the body by recognizing antigens, surface-bound proteins that serve as identification for the lymphocyte to know whether the other cell is an invader that needs to be eliminated (Postlethwait Hopson, 2006).            Clearly, the plasma membrane serves critical roles in cellular function, not just in THE PLASMA MEMBRANE                                                                                                                                                   Page # 2 protecting the cell but as well as in transport, regulation and communication, and since, as Krogh (2003) has stated, â€Å"all life is made of cells†, it follows that life simply is not possible without the plasma membrane. References: Krogh, D. (2003). Biology: A Guide to the Natural World, 3rd ed. Companion Website. Retrieved Dec. 31, 2007, from http://wps.prenhall.com/esm_krogh_biology_3/ Postlethwait, J. H., Hopson, J. L. (2006). Modern Biology.                                          Texas: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Sunday, October 27, 2019
Fibre optics
Fibre optics ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: History of all great works in to witness that no great work was ever done without either active or passive support of a person surrounding and ones close quarters. Thus is it not hard to conclude how active assistance from senior could positively impact the execution of a project .I am highly thankful to our learned faculty for her active guidance throughout the completion of project. Last but not least, I would also want to extend my appreciation to those who could not be mentioned here but have well played their role to inspire me behind the certain. History:- Daniel Colladon first described this light fountain or light pipe in an 1842 article entitled On the reflections of a ray of light inside a parabolic liquid stream. This particular illustration comes from a later article by Colladon, in 1884. The principle that makes fiber optics possible, was first demonstrated by Daniel Colladon and Jacques Babinet in Paris in the early 1840s. John Tyndall wrote about the property of total internal reflection in an introductory book about the nature of light in 1870: When the light passes from air into water, the refracted ray is bent towards the perpendicular When the ray passes from water to air it is bent from the perpendicular If the angle which the ray in water encloses with the perpendicular to the surface be greater than 48 degrees, the ray will not quit the water at all: it will be totally reflected at the surface. The angle which marks the limit where total reflection begins is called the limiting angle of the medium. For water this angle is 48Â °27, for flint glass it is 38Â °41, while for diamond it is 23Â °42. The groundbreaking event happened in around 1965, Charles K. Kao and George A. Hockham of the British company Standard Telephones and Cables (STC) were the first to promote the idea that the attenuation in optical fibers could be reduced below 20 decibels per kilometer (dB/km), allowing fibers to be a practical medium for communication. They proposed that the attenuation in fibers available at the time was caused by impurities, which could be removed, rather than fundamental physical effects such as scattering. They correctly and systematically theorized the light-loss properties for optical fiber, and pointed out the right material to manufacture such fibers silica glass with high purity. This discovery led to Kao being awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2009. NASA used fiber optics in the television cameras that were sent to the moon. At the time its use in the cameras was classified confidential and only those with the right security clearance or those accompanied by someone with the right security clearence were permitted to handle the cameras. In 1991, the emerging field of photonic crystals led to the development of photonic-crystal fiber which guides light by means of diffraction from a periodic structure, rather than total internal reflection. The first photonic crystal fibers became commercially available in 2000. Photonic crystal fibers can be designed to carry higher power than conventional fiber, and their wavelength dependent properties can be manipulated to improve their performance in certain applications. PROCESS OF MANUFACTURING OF FIBRE OPTICS:- Illustration of the modified chemical vapor deposition (inside) process Standard optical fibers are made by first constructing a large-diameter preform, with a carefully controlled refractive index profile, and then pulling the preform to form the long, thin optical fiber. The preform is commonly made by three chemical vapor deposition methods: inside vapor deposition, outside vapor deposition, and vapor axial deposition. With inside vapor deposition, the preform starts as a hollow glass tube approximately 40centimeters (16in) long, which is placed horizontally and rotated slowly on a lathe. Gases such as silicon tetrachloride (SiCl4) or germanium tetrachloride (GeCl4) are injected with oxygen in the end of the tube. The gases are then heated by means of an external hydrogen burner, bringing the temperature of the gas up to 1900K (1600Â °C, 3000Â °F), where the tetrachlorides react with oxygen to produce silica or germania (germanium dioxide) particles. When the reaction conditions are chosen to allow this reaction to occur in the gas phase throughout the tube volume, in contrast to earlier techniques where the reaction occurred only on the glass surface, this technique is called modified chemical vapor deposition. The oxide particles then agglomerate to form large particle chains, which subsequently deposit on the walls of the tube as soot. The deposition is due to the large difference in temperature between the gas core and the wall causing the gas to push the particles outwards (this is known as thermophoresis). The torch is then traversed up and down the length of the tube to deposit the material evenly. After the torch has reached the end of the tube, it is then brought back to the beginning of the tube and the deposited particles are then melted to form a solid layer. This process is repeated until a sufficient amount of material has been deposited. For each layer the composition can be modified by varying the gas composition, resulting in precise control of the finished fibers optical properties. In outside vapor deposition or vapor axial deposition, the glass is formed by flame hydrolysis, a reaction in which silicon tetrachloride and germanium tetrachloride are oxidized by reaction with water (H2O) in an oxyhydrogen flame. In outside vapor deposition the glass is deposited onto a solid rod, which is removed before further processing. In vapor axial deposition, a short seed rod is used, and a porous preform, whose length is not limited by the size of the source rod, is built up on its end. The porous preform is consolidated into a transparent, solid preform by heating to about 1800K (1500Â °C, 2800Â °F). The preform, however constructed, is then placed in a device known as a drawing tower, where the preform tip is heated and the optic fiber is pulled out as a string. By measuring the resultant fiber width, the tension on the fiber can be controlled to maintain the fiber thickness. Principle of operation:- An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide (nonconducting waveguide) that transmits light along its axis, by the process of total internal reflection. The fiber consists of a core surrounded by a cladding layer, both of which are made of dielectric materials. To confine the optical signal in the core, the refractive index of the core must be greater than that of the cladding. The boundary between the core and cladding may either be abrupt, in step-index fiber, or gradual, in graded-index fiber. Index of refraction: The index of refraction is a way of measuring the speed of light in a material. Light travels fastest in a vacuum, such as outer space. The actual speed of light in a vacuum is about 300,000 kilometres (186 thousand miles) per second. Index of refraction is calculated by dividing the speed of light in a vacuum by the speed of light in some other medium. The index of refraction of a vacuum is therefore 1, by definition. The typical value for the cladding of an optical fiber is 1.46. The core value is typically 1.48. The larger the index of refraction, the slower light travels in that medium. From this information, a good rule of thumb is that signal using optical fiber for communication will travel at around 200 million meters per second. Or to put it another way, to travel 1000 kilometers in fiber, the signal will take 5 milliseconds to propagate. Thus a phone call carried by fiber between Sydney and New York, a 12000 kilometer distance, means that there is an absolute minimum delay of 60 milliseconds (or around 1/16th of a second) between when one caller speaks to when the other hears. (Of course the fiber in this case will probably travel a longer route, and there will be additional delays due to communication equipment switching and the process of encoding and decoding the voice onto the fiber). Total internal reflection: When light traveling in a dense medium hits a boundary at a steep angle (larger than the critical angle for the boundary), the light will be completely reflected. This effect is used in optical fibers to confine light in the core. Light travels along the fiber bouncing back and forth off of the boundary. Because the light must strike the boundary with an angle greater than the critical angle, only light that enters the fiber within a certain range of angles can travel down the fiber without leaking out. This range of angles is called the acceptance cone of the fiber. The size of this acceptance cone is a function of the refractive index difference between the fibers core and cladding. In simpler terms, there is a maximum angle from the fiber axis at which light may enter the fiber so that it will propagate, or travel, in the core of the fiber. The sine of this maximum angle is the numerical aperture (NA) of the fiber. Fiber with a larger NA requires less precision to splice and work with than fiber with a smaller NA. Single-mode fiber has a small NA. TYPES OF FIBRE OPTICS:- Multi-mode fiber:- Fibers which support many propagation paths or transverse modes are called multi-mode fibers (MMF). Multi-mode fibers generally have a larger core diameter, and are used for short-distance communication links and for applications where high power must be transmitted. Fiber with large core diameter may be analyzed by geometrical optics. Such fiber is called multi-mode fiber. from the electromagnetic analysis . In a step-index multi-mode fiber, rays of light are guided along the fiber core by total internal reflection. Rays that meet the core-cladding boundary at a high angle , greater than the critical angle for this boundary, are completely reflected. The critical angle (minimum angle for total internal reflection) is determined by the difference in index of refraction between the core and cladding materials. Rays that meet the boundary at a low angle are refracted from the core into the cladding, and do not convey light and hence information along the fiber. The critical angle determines the acceptance angle of the fiber, often reported as a numerical aperture. A high numerical aperture allows light to propagate down the fiber in rays both close to the axis and at various angles, allowing efficient coupling of light into the fiber. However, this high numerical aperture increases the amount of dispersion as rays at different angles have different path lengths and therefore take different times to traverse the fiber. Single-mode fiber:- Those which can only support a single mode are called single-mode fibers (SMF). Single-mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than 550meters (1,800ft). The structure of a typical single-mode fiber. Core: 8Â µm diameter Cladding: 125Â µm dia. Buffer: 250Â µm dia. Jacket: 400Â µm dia. Fiber with a core diameter less than about ten times the wavelength of the propagating light cannot be modeled using geometric optics. Instead, it must be analyzed as an electromagnetic structure, by solution of Maxwells equations as reduced to the electromagnetic wave equation. The electromagnetic analysis may also be required to understand behaviors such as speckle that occur when coherent light propagates in multi-mode fiber. As an optical waveguide, the fiber supports one or more confined transverse modes by which light can propagate along the fiber. Fiber supporting only one mode is called single-mode or mono-mode fiber. The most common type of single-mode fiber has a core diameter of 8-10 micrometers and is designed for use in the near infrared. The mode structure depends on the wavelength of the light used, so that this fiber actually supports a small number of additional modes at visible wavelengths. Multi-mode fiber, by comparison, is manufactured with core diameters as small as 50 micrometers and as large as hundreds of micrometers. The normalized frequency V for this fiber should be less than the first zero of the Bessel function J0 (approximately 2.405). Special-purpose fiber: Some special-purpose optical fiber is constructed with a non-cylindrical core and/or cladding layer, usually with an elliptical or rectangular cross-section. These include polarization-maintaining fiber and fiber designed to suppress whispering gallery mode propagation. Photonic-crystal fiber is made with a regular pattern of index variation (often in the form of cylindrical holes that run along the length of the fiber). Such fiber uses diffraction effects instead of or in addition to total internal reflection, to confine light to the fibers core. The properties of the fiber can be tailored to a wide variety of applications. APPLICATIONS OF FIBRE OPTICS:- Optical fiber communication: Optical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication and networking because it is flexible and can be bundled as cables. It is especially advantageous for long-distance communications, because light propagates through the fiber with little attenuation compared to electrical cables. This allows long distances to be spanned with few repeaters. Additionally, the per-channel light signals propagating in the fiber have been modulated at rates as high as 111 gigabits per second by NTT, although 10 or 40Gb/s is typical in deployed systems. Each fiber can carry many independent channels, each using a different wavelength of light (wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)). The net data rate (data rate without overhead bytes) per fiber is the per-channel data rate reduced by the FEC overhead, multiplied by the number of channels. For short distance applications, such as creating a network within an office building, fiber-optic cabling can be used to save space in cable ducts. This is because a single fiber can often carry much more data than many electrical cables, such as 4 pair Cat-5 Ethernet cabling. Fiber is also immune to electrical interference; there is no cross-talk between signals in different cables and no pickup of environmental noise. Non-armored fiber cables do not conduct electricity, which makes fiber a good solution for protecting communications equipment located in high voltage environments such as power generation facilities, or metal communication structures prone to lightning strikes. They can also be used in environments where explosive fumes are present, without danger of ignition. Wiretapping is more difficult compared to electrical connections, and there are concentric dual core fibers that are said to be tap-proof. Fiber optic sensors :- Fibers have many uses in remote sensing. In some applications, the sensor is itself an optical fiber. In other cases, fiber is used to connect a non-fiberoptic sensor to a measurement system. Depending on the application, fiber may be used because of its small size, or the fact that no electrical power is needed at the remote location, or because many sensors can be multiplexed along the length of a fiber by using different wavelengths of light for each sensor, or by sensing the time delay as light passes along the fiber through each sensor. Time delay can be determined using a device such as an optical time-domain reflectometer. Optical fibers can be used as sensors to measure strain, temperature, pressure and other quantities by modifying a fiber so that the quantity to be measured modulates the intensity, phase, polarization, wavelength or transit time of light in the fiber. Sensors that vary the intensity of light are the simplest, since only a simple source and detector are required. A particularly useful feature of such fiber optic sensors is that they can, if required, provide distributed sensing over distances of up to one meter. Extrinsic fiber optic sensors use an optical fiber cable, normally a multi-mode one, to transmit modulated light from either a non-fiber optical sensor, or an electronic sensor connected to an optical transmitter. A major benefit of extrinsic sensors is their ability to reach places which are otherwise inaccessible. An example is the measurement of temperature inside aircraft jet engines by using a fiber to transmit radiation into a radiation pyrometer located outside the engine. Extrinsic sensors can also be used in the same way to measure the internal temperature of electrical transformers, where the extreme electromagnetic fields present make other measurement techniques impossible. Extrinsic sensors are used to measure vibration, rotation, displacement, velocity, acceleration, torque, and twisting. Other uses of optical fibers:- Light reflected from optical fiber illuminates exhibited model Fibers are widely used in illumination applications. They are used as light guides in medical and other applications where bright light needs to be shone on a target without a clear line-of-sight path. In some buildings, optical fibers are used to route sunlight from the roof to other parts of the building . Optical fiber illumination is also used for decorative applications, including signs, art, and artificial Christmas trees. Swarovski boutiques use optical fibers to illuminate their crystal showcases from many different angles while only employing one light source. Optical fiber is an intrinsic part of the light-transmitting concrete building product, LiTraCon. Optical fiber is also used in imaging optics. A coherent bundle of fibers is used, sometimes along with lenses, for a long, thin imaging device called an endoscope, which is used to view objects through a small hole. Medical endoscopes are used for minimally invasive exploratory or surgical procedures (endoscopy). Industrial endoscopes used for inspecting anything hard to reach, such as jet engine interiors. In spectroscopy, optical fiber bundles are used to transmit light from a spectrometer to a substance which cannot be placed inside the spectrometer itself, in order to analyze its composition. A spectrometer analyzes substances by bouncing light off of and through them. By using fibers, a spectrometer can be used to study objects that are too large to fit inside, or gasses, or reactions which occur in pressure vessels. An optical fiber doped with certain rare earth elements such as erbium can be used as the gain medium of a laser or optical amplifier. Rare-earth doped optical fibers can be used to provide signal amplification by splicing a short section of doped fiber into a regular (undoped) optical fiber line. The doped fiber is optically pumped with a second laser wavelength that is coupled into the line in addition to the signal wave. Both wavelengths of light are transmitted through the doped fiber, which transfers energy from the second pump wavelength to the signal wave. The process that causes the amplification is stimulated emission. Optical fibers doped with a wavelength shifter are used to collect scintillation light in physics experiments Optical fiber can be used to supply a low level of power (around one watt) to electronics situated in a difficult electrical environment. Examples of this are electronics in high-powered antenna elements and measurement devices used in high voltage transmission equipment. USES:- Optical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic communications, which permits transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than other forms of communications. Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along them with less loss, and they are also immune to electromagnetic interference. Fibers are also used for illumination, and are wrapped in bundles so they can be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in tight spaces. Specially designed fibers are used for a variety of other applications, including sensors and fiber lasers. Light is kept in the core of the optical fiber by total internal reflection. This causes the fiber to act as a waveguide. ADVANTAGES OF FIBRE OPTICS: We knowthe electrical signals travel pretty well in metal cables but nothing compares to light inoptical fibre. If we have to list the most outstanding advantages of using light as a carrier and optical fibres as transmission channels these may be some of them: Great bandwidth available to transmit information. You can easily use many GHz of bandwidth limitations being mostly related to electronics in the transmitters and the receivers. Low attenuation of the light travelling through optical fibres. Light can travel many kilometres in an optical fibre with little attenuation and without using amplifiers/repeaters or having them spaced a lot more than amplifiers in coaxial cables for example. Immunity to interferences. Optical fibres are made of glass not of any metal which makes them immune to any kind of electromagnetic interference. Galvanic isolation. Since they are not metallic they dont establish electrical contactbetween emitter and receiver nor create any capacitance along the length of the cable. REFERENCES:- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber http://www.educypedia.be/electronics/cablingfibers.htm http://www.protelturkey.com/teknik/fo/IntroToFOMeas.pdf
Friday, October 25, 2019
A Rational Look at the Abortion Controversy Essay -- Exploratory Essay
A Rational Look at the Abortion Controversy One of the most hotly contested issues inside and outside of biomedical ethics today is abortion. The discussion received a new impetus at the release of the controversial abortion drug RU-486, "a pill to increase access to abortions and let women get them privately from their own doctor instead of facing shouting protesters at clinics."2 As is the case with all controversial issues, there are very passionate people on both sides of the fence. Unfortunately, a heated discussion on abortion can easily and quickly turn into a battle of rhetoric rather than a dialectic of reason. But the guiding light in such a discussion must always be reason, not rhetoric or other fallacies, for only reason can solve this issue and judge which side is correct. In this brief essay, I shall attempt to clear away some of the confusion present in typical abortion debates by cooling the rhetoric with reason enlightened by scientific facts. Specifically, I will examine two common pro-abortion arguments made by Mary Anne Warren and Judith Jarvis Thomson and demonstrate that they cannot stand up to rational scrutiny and therefore fail to justify abortion. I shall also use a "quadrilemma" argument similar to that of Peter Kreeft's to show that, aside from all specific argumentation, abortion cannot be morally justified. Before even beginning to discuss the issue of abortion, it is imperative to agree upon a starting point from which to reason. The fact that some people differ even about this very point tends to render the pro-abortion and the anti-abortion paradigms somewhat "incommensurable," and this is probably one major reason why people are tempted to arrive at different conclusions about this ... ...ilure is equal to an unwanted pregnancy due to rape is nothing short of ridiculous. The sexual act by nature tends towards pregnancy, i.e., that is the natural purpose of the sexual act, and any woman who engages in this act voluntarily, with or without contraception, thereby willingly opens herself to pregnancy. 20 Wilcox, "Nature as Demonic," 468. 21 Wilcox, "Nature as Demonic," 468f. 22 M. LeRoy Sprang and Mark G. Neerhof, "Rationale for Banning Abortions Late in Pregnancy," Journal of the American Medical Association 280, no. 8 (1998): 745. 23 Sprang and Neerhof, "Banning Abortions," 745. 24 Cf. Peter Kreeft, Making Choices: Practical Wisdom for Everyday Moral Decisions (Ann Arbor, MI: Servant Publications, 1990), 119-21. 25 One might object that "abortion is morally neutral" is another possibility, but that which is morally neutral is morally permissible. A Rational Look at the Abortion Controversy Essay -- Exploratory Essay A Rational Look at the Abortion Controversy One of the most hotly contested issues inside and outside of biomedical ethics today is abortion. The discussion received a new impetus at the release of the controversial abortion drug RU-486, "a pill to increase access to abortions and let women get them privately from their own doctor instead of facing shouting protesters at clinics."2 As is the case with all controversial issues, there are very passionate people on both sides of the fence. Unfortunately, a heated discussion on abortion can easily and quickly turn into a battle of rhetoric rather than a dialectic of reason. But the guiding light in such a discussion must always be reason, not rhetoric or other fallacies, for only reason can solve this issue and judge which side is correct. In this brief essay, I shall attempt to clear away some of the confusion present in typical abortion debates by cooling the rhetoric with reason enlightened by scientific facts. Specifically, I will examine two common pro-abortion arguments made by Mary Anne Warren and Judith Jarvis Thomson and demonstrate that they cannot stand up to rational scrutiny and therefore fail to justify abortion. I shall also use a "quadrilemma" argument similar to that of Peter Kreeft's to show that, aside from all specific argumentation, abortion cannot be morally justified. Before even beginning to discuss the issue of abortion, it is imperative to agree upon a starting point from which to reason. The fact that some people differ even about this very point tends to render the pro-abortion and the anti-abortion paradigms somewhat "incommensurable," and this is probably one major reason why people are tempted to arrive at different conclusions about this ... ...ilure is equal to an unwanted pregnancy due to rape is nothing short of ridiculous. The sexual act by nature tends towards pregnancy, i.e., that is the natural purpose of the sexual act, and any woman who engages in this act voluntarily, with or without contraception, thereby willingly opens herself to pregnancy. 20 Wilcox, "Nature as Demonic," 468. 21 Wilcox, "Nature as Demonic," 468f. 22 M. LeRoy Sprang and Mark G. Neerhof, "Rationale for Banning Abortions Late in Pregnancy," Journal of the American Medical Association 280, no. 8 (1998): 745. 23 Sprang and Neerhof, "Banning Abortions," 745. 24 Cf. Peter Kreeft, Making Choices: Practical Wisdom for Everyday Moral Decisions (Ann Arbor, MI: Servant Publications, 1990), 119-21. 25 One might object that "abortion is morally neutral" is another possibility, but that which is morally neutral is morally permissible.
Thursday, October 24, 2019
Personality psychology Essay
â€Å"We are born at a given moment, in a given place and, like vintage years of wine, we have the qualities of the year and of the season of which we are born. Astrology does not lay claim to anything more†(Carl Gustav Jung). Ever since humans looked toward the sky for some kind of meaning to life and answers to the big questions, astrology has been a part of many people’s lives. It is also known to hold knowledge on one’s personality and character. After reading my Pisces personality profile, I realized that there are similarities and differences between my personality and the profile provided. Aside from the similarities, the profile also consists of traits which are different from my own. I feel that I am a long term planners and I am very decisive about my life goals as opposed to the profile which says that Pisces â€Å"[go] where the wind blows†. I feel that I am a very determined person and example of this is that in grade 8, I had thought about each and every single major step stone in my life. I had decided that I would go into McMasters to study Health Sciences, then go into UFT medical school, complete 3 years of specialization in neurology and after completing my residency, become a neurosurgeon. Saying that I go where the wind blows is an invalid statement. In addition, I do not feel that I have a strong connection with music which again disobeys the profile personality. It says that Pisces â€Å"[are] often channeled into creative outlets,†and have a strong connection in â€Å"music and film†. I feel it very hard to connect to music personally because I feel I have no relations with the topics a singer sings about. Even though certain music can be inspirational and represent an important topic, most of today’s music just seems to be about money, fame and girls. Just yesterday I felt depressed due though personal circumstances and thought music might aid but I personally had no relief. Moreover, I also disagree with the fact that I have â€Å"a feminine nature†. I consider myself being more masculine and bold. In particular, during my summer job when my employer asked me to do something I felt was unsafe, I gallantly spoke out whereas if I had a feminine nature I might have said nothing. As a result I feel that certain elements of this personality profile do not match with mine. In conclusion, there are similarities and differences between my personality and the profile personality provided. Even though it consisted of several traits which I felt resembled me, it also contained traits which I could not relate to. Scientists have always dismissed astrology as a load of old bunk. Now, a British astronomer has said that there might be something in it after all. Could the planets really control our fates? Bibliography Yoga, Lexi. 101 Astrology Quotes. October 2009. Web. 11 September 2010 .
Tuesday, October 22, 2019
British Petroleum
Takeover refers to the purchase of one company by the other and technically deals with acquisition of a listed company by one or more companies which are at better financial and economic position than the company being acquired. BP is on verge of a takeover and the following paper presents analysis of the company. The company is British owned and it has branches in various countries around the globe.The institution is found in energy industry and its one of the biggest and most valued energy supply and distribution institution in the world. Theoretically the history of the company is very complicated as it’s very rich, varied and unique status. The following paper gives complete analysis of problems facing the company especially the one involved before and after the drastic oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico and consists of references to various journals, business literature, and scholarly literature materials.This paper describes the activities and discusses the conventional rea sons for a takeover, their advantages and disadvantages, and strategic considerations that can be made to prevent a possible takeover. Introduction British petroleum (BP) company is an international energy production and supply company with its head quarters London, United Kingdom. By margin BP is the 3rd largest energy company and the 4th biggest company in the world (Datamonitor , 2009, p, 45).The company has operated in the energy sector for many years and it has gained reputation of being trustworthy thus it has instilled consumer loyalty across the spectrum. This company has experienced rapid changes and advancements in science and technology and presents numerous challenges to the company in relation to personal safety and quality management and also it entails issues like production costs, intellectual ownership of properties and products, competition and monopolies.The company is public held and its shares are traded in major stock exchanges globally including the London sto ck exchange, New York Stock Exchange and other stock exchanges in major cities all over the world with the trading symbol BP (Coffee, et al, 2000, p 98). The organizational original mission was to provide consumers with the right assortment of products, at the right quantities and price, and to provide excellent customer service through trained representatives.The organization current mission is guided by key core values: excellent customer service, care for people, entrepreneurial spirit, respect for all, building strong relationships, doing the right thing, giving back to communities, and creating shareholder value (Weston,2000 ,p ,87). BP success is based on mutually beneficial partnerships with diverse and competitive suppliers, allowing the company to deliver a wide assortment of superior, yet low-cost products and services, combined with superb customer service, and focused towards increasing shareholder value.The company employs over 210,000 employees and tends to serve more than a 300 million customers worldwide (Van & Schroeder, 1984, p 29). With the current problems facing British Petroleum in the Gulf of Mexico following the deepwater rig explosion which was caused by what has been described as the worst US ecological disaster ever, the Company's share price has fallen steeply and according to some commentators this could trigger a takeover of the business by one of its big competitors such as EXXON MOBIL, SHELL or even PETROCHINA (FINANCIAL TIMES, 2010, p 34).The catastrophe has plunged the company’s stock price as well as its reputation, and public image following the catastrophe have led to speculation regarding the company takeover due to the fact that the company is experiencing financial problems, huge losses as a result of oil spill and poor handling and management of the oil spill (Armstrong, 2003, p, 23). The above mentioned issues have been viewed by many to have been caused by poor leadership and decision making techniques in regar d to the way the management handled the oil spill.With the current troubles facing British Petroleum (BP) in the Gulf of Mexico, there is possibility of acquisition or takeover and hence a research paper which tries to come up with the relevant information in trying to establish some of the major factors that have been influencing the anticipated takeover (Ansell & Park, 2003, p 47), Identification of Industry and possible takeover Competitors The company is found in the energy industry and mainly concentrates in oil exploration, supply, and distribution.The industry deals with all assortments of energy products including oil, wind, solar, hydro power and other related energy products and services. This industry is one of the most contended ones with many rivals who produce similar products and services . The top competitors of BP include EXXON MOBIL . SHELL and PETROCHINA; with SHELL being the strongest rival of BP (Maxwell , 2002, p, 29). The company has a global presence and has assets in most areas of Africa especially central and western Africa, China and South American states like Venezuela and Uruguay, but the United States and Russia are its largest market.As mentioned earlier, BP is the third largest energy company in the world and the fourth largest company in the world (Kwon, 2008, p, 87). The possible competitor for the takeover has been indentified to be Exxon Mobil for the reason that the company is American owned and its operations and performance over the years have been above par compared to other rivals. Companies like Shell and Petro china though internationally recognized, their operations are not augmented like those of Exxon Mobil (Johnson, 2010, p 19). Description of the Organizational ProblemsDifferent organizations experience different problems depending on the nature of the organization, the economic situations, the political interruptions, and the human interference. Once these problems occur within a corporation, it tends to affects the organization core responsibility to extent of being unable to provide adequate and quality services to its clients and individuals relying on it. The occurrence of these problems can be a very damaging issue if they are hard to evaluate and solve (Kesler, 2008, p 49).With the British Petroleum (BP) company, there a number of issues and problems that has been constantly hounding it. Most of the organizations problems and causative agent for the possible takeover have possibly resulted from the oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico and lack of teamwork and capacity building in relation to the employees during the fixing of the oil cap to reduce massive leakage. Due to this, there have been reduced prices of the company’s stocks all over the world due to market fears of possible losses and public loss of confidence in the company.The increased failed management in the corporation resulting from the management poor skills in handling crisis has sometimes been leading its operation s to the wrong direction. The poor handling of the oil spill by the company executives is one good example of the management laxity and the probable cause of the proposed takeover . It must be agreed that BP has been faced with lack of skilled and effective managers offering effective managerial services thus leading it into poor leadership and decision making processes (Lochhead, 2009, p 67).As we have noted, most of the problems faced in this organization have been caused by the oil spill and ongoing economic recession, and others are related to inability of workers to work together. Since there was poor handling of the oil spill, the company has been in bad relationship with the neighboring community and it has not been able to fulfill its social responsibility function due to constant bickering and interference from the American government (Snell & Dean, 1992, p 50).In conclusion, the major issues contributing to the proposed takeover of BP is the matter of financial problems re lating from the management of the oil spill, whereby the company has spent billions of shillings in controlling the spill and eventually the company has been forced to sell some of its assets in Russia to cover the costs, and this has not been going well with majority of shareholders due to fact Russia is one of its biggest market. Lack of trust from consumers and American government is another factor that has led the company to opt selling its assets to its competitors (Maxwell, 2002, p 98).BP Proposed Takeover Definitively, takeover refers to purchase of one company by the other and technically deals with acquisition of listed company by one or more companies which are at better financial and economic position than the company being acquired. Takeover occurs in situations where a company wants to save itself from financial problems and also happens in situations where the company wants to secure limited market, channels of distribution, consumers and supplies.In any kind of organi zation, takeover or acquisition are quite significant since they play a major role towards the overall achievement of the given business or organization. This has to be done in a delicate manner that ensures all areas and aspects of the organization have been greatly considered. When the issue of takeover is being discussed about in a given business or any other kind of organization, it is very important to think of the manner in which the operation will be coordinated and thus employ the necessary personnel and practices which shall promote the performance of the organization .It is important to note that, without managing the human aspect and all other resources being utilized in the business, it may not be possible to achieve the goals and missions of the organization (Stern & Chew, 2003, p 90). One of the major reasons for British petroleum proposed takeover is as a result of the financial and social problems resulting from the oil spill in the gulf Mexico. From â€Å"NEWSWEEK Journal of 04. 06.2010, the spill has costed the company sums of money to the tune of over 19 billion dollars covering both the cost of cleanup and compensation to individuals affected and penalties to the American government. The performance of the company has dwindled in the recent days and in the first quarter of the year; the company has made losses amounting to over 20 billion dollars. Since corporate takeover entails two key types that include hostile and friendly takeover, BP takeover assumes that of hostile nature for the reason that the company is unwilling to engage in any dialogue relating to acquisition of its major assets.Hostile takeovers generally occur in situations where the board of directors is unwilling to relinquish its position and the company, while the company is performing way below par in terms of operations and financial management. This is the case with BP since the company CEO Tony Hayward has not viewed it has a possibility and has publicly stated that on a number of media outlets. A takeover in ensuring there is such form of safety can basically include a number of one or more different components within the totality of the institutionalized system.Such safety provisions include change in an organization and necessary management, safety policies, organizational procedures, and other emergency procedures and responses which have been put in place (Liu, 2006, p, 65). Advantages of BP takeover 1. One major advantage of BP proposed takeover is that once realized, the firm which was poorly managed prior to the acquisition will undergo valuable management and performance rectification due to changes that will occur in its management structure .The changes in corporate structure including modification and replacements of executives and senior staff will guarantee and repair the organization dented reputation. For the reason that the organization acquisition will involve a moderate debt to equity ratio, the company will also negotiate th e acquisition deal since it poses a controlling stake in the global market (Van & Schroeder, 2008, p, 20).The company goodwill in the world is very highly rated and possible acquisition of the company assets will entail the purchase of this valuable non- tangible asset hence provide opportunities for making more funds from the sale. 2. The company shareholders will also benefit from the returns emerging from the acquisition due to fact the company has a positive capital value attributed from large shareholder base ,assets and properties it owns in the world.With immense global presence, the BP buyout will promote employees and shareholder interests as maintaining the company effectiveness, efficiency and loyalty (Fox, et al, 2008, p, 87). The company benefits from strong market share and sound economic position hence even after the buyout, the company products will still remain favorable in the global market due to the consumer confidence established before the oil spill. 3. The BP issue will only involve acquisition of the company shares and assets, and this will entail the concept referred to as strategic takeover.This concept is advantageous to the company and the company acquiring it since the firm will select and buy assets that are favorable to them and they will be able to negotiate the right price for the products without full approval of the shareholder and other regulatory bodies. When it comes to the takeover process, the approach is mainly aimed in ensuring that any forms of weaknesses and strengths have been disclosed, and especially the ones which might have diverse impacts on the process and operations being carried out.For the reason that the company has huge amount of liabilities and increased level of debt, takeover by its competitors will reduce its taxable income hence leading to reduced tax payments. The company taking over BP will acquire both its assets and liabilities, thus the company will be saved the burden of paying and compensating the victims of the accidents and penalties to the American government.BP take over will promote efficiency gains since it will be able to eliminate corporate value destroying effects that emerge from excessive diversification hence it will be able to reduce the organization debt ratio and increase its equity portion (Dunning, J 2004, and p. 97). Disadvantages of the Takeover There are a number of problems which have to be noted with the BP proposed takeover. To begin with, the acquisition tests to be administered in establishing whether the company is profitable will be very inaccurate.This might end up resulting in cases where a very strong company is bought using false benchmarks or current situations without the evaluating the overall organizational position and performance (Mok & Tillaart, 1990, 76). If implemented as proposed, the organization corporate restructuring will greatly affect employees and its shareholders. The company will be forced to downsize its operations and c urrent workforce hence this will result to increased levels unemployment due to possibilities of employees being laid off.Large number of unemployed individuals will impact on the overall community hence hindering its economic development and opulence (Liu, 2006, p 58). BP has a global presence and sudden acquisition of its assets in some African and Asian countries will not be taken well since majority of people have an intimate touch with its products and trademark hence transfer of its assets to other organizations will affect its social standard and responsibility to the community (Roger, 2008, p ,36). Another issue is that many companies won’t agree the bid for BP takeover due to the fear of huge liabilities owned by the company from the oil spill.Most of BP shareholders are large multinational institutions in Britain like insurance and pension funds and the takeover of the company will critically affect the United Kingdom economy thus affecting lives of many Britons and other shareholders all over the world. Proposed bid from its rivals especially Exxon which is an American company will cause diplomatic problems between the US and Britain. Coming from bitter criticism from president obama, the cold ties will eventually increase if there is a takeover of BP by an American company (Peter & Paulson, 2009, p ,56).Another problem that is likely to happen if the event of the takeover the UK political establishment will lose public confidence for the reason that it does not support operations of the company and form this their would be a likelihood of political problems in Britain, this is because majority of Britons are shareholders . With controversial handling of the case by American leadership, possible takeover of the company by an American company will be seen as a planned agenda since in many occasions the politicians have said the company could have performed better if it was owned by Americans.Many critics of the proposed takeover argue that tra nsactions between BP and its competitors will harm and dent the long term competitiveness of the company (Kwon, 2008, p, 56). British Petroleum (BP): Strategic Plans BP as one of the most reputable companies in the world ,though affected with the oil spill ,it has been conducting a number of business as well as marketing strategies which come up with strategic plans aimed at future performances so that they can prevent future events from happening (Ransom, 2000,p ,76).With the recent oil spill crisis, the organization strategic plans involves restructuring of the management ,employment of competent staff and instilling of concepts of teamwork and working together to both employees and the management. The company productivity and performance have been drastically affected and the institution sales have reduced significantly leading to a drop in its share prices by more than 40 % (NEWSWEEK, 2010, p, 23) . The crisis has reduced its current customer base and at the same time it has red uced the company sales by more 35% .With this issue of underperformance in mind, the company so far is aimed at increasing the its social reputation and sales and at the very time being in a position of formulating major marketing strategies which are applicable and can help it reach all the customers around the world in which the corporation has been delivering its services (Sapienza & Grimm, 1997. p 87). The marketing strategy for the corporation that entails use of economies of scale and wide distribution networks, and the company is anticipating offering some of the lowest prices in the industry.Moreover, the company is promising to offer a low-price guarantee which will ultimately beat any competitor’s price or match their retail value (Dennet, 2009, p, 154). BP is trying to enlarge their customer base through various marketing venues that include Television advertisements which are aimed to increase brand awareness. Radio advertisements, Digital media (for example e-mai l subscriptions and the Internet) which will provide efficient ways to disseminate information, coupons, and free expert advice and product demonstrationsWithin the business, the strategic plan will be done by incorporating all stakeholders and engaging in appropriate decisions which will promote performance (Johnnson, 2010, p, 46). This proposed strategic marketing plan will entail analysis of the company’s strengths, their weaknesses, and measure the amounts of resources at disposal, and then come up with adequate strategic missions which ensure better performance (Madura, 2008, p, 45).When effected, such strategies will have long term effects and will make the company realize its goals within the stipulated time period. Effective leadership and decision making skills, and communication have also been emphasized as a key element towards realization from the oil spill catastrophe. Basically to avoid the proposed idea of takeover, it should be noted that, it is through proper coordination and employment of such long term strategic plans that the corporation will be able to emerge on top of its business operations (Armstrong, 2003, p 29).Recommended alternatives to avoid possible takeover The current oil spill crisis calls for innovative product and development especially in light of the growing negative publicity that is associated with environmental pollution and loss of jobs (Robbins, 2008, p, 76). Therefore, the option that should be pursued by BP is for them to implement and initiate strategic development and management strategies that will make them remain viable in the energy market.As BP proceeds into the future, they must be vigilant to avoid poor decision making processes which will hinder them in handling major crisis since catastrophes are some times inevitable (Laura & Torrington, 2005, p ,98). BP’s biggest risk exposure includes: unpredictable economic and political conditions, increased prices in fuel and other supplies, customer re tention, and relations with foreign countries. In order to be prepared and least effected, BP must develop strategies that will allow them to remain profitable in an unsteady market.Suggestions would be for BP to remain current on the risks of oil spill and aware of the current and future relations with foreign countries. Another suggestion would be for BP to try and negotiate compensations and government penalties. (Brodie, 2010, p 78). BP has been one of today’s most respected corporations in the history of the world because it has the highest degree of business culture as well as ethics. Generally, this organization has been able to create highly rated performance when it comes to organizational effectiveness.The creation of more and more new management groups can be a good approach which can enable handling of the key problems which have been faced within the company and its eventual operations (Sorrow, 2009, p, 89). Also, there should be the presence of a dynamic and div erse workforce which can effectively ensure that this company is able to perform better within all its key operations because different ideas shall end up being brought together from people with development experience backgrounds thus improving its performance drastically.Another important thing that can lead to a great deal effectiveness at the BP shall be in the use of newer forms of technology thus being able to come up with better and intelligent products and services which can enhance all means product and social development thus increasing the customer base for the company (Robbins, 2008. p 56). If they are able to do so, they will be able to avoid risks resulting from takeovers.BP must devise strategies to offset problems resulting from ineffective management and lack of teamwork in part of employees to avoid occurrence of similar problems which have been recorded to be detrimental in its history of existence (Jeffrey & Bratton, 2001, p, 59). The rapid advancement of technolo gy along with the growth of robotics provides many opportunities for BP.If the company continues to focus on and improve their performance management, they have every bit of potential to gain a competitive edge in the industry . Social trends are moving towards a holistic and humble approach in all areas of life, BP does not want to get caught playing catch-up to its competitors. By following this strategy, BP will have the opportunity to gain revenue and increase market share regardless of the recent crisis (Auerbach & Alan, 1991, p 36). ConclusionTakeover is a very important approach which has to be keenly considered by BP so as to improve their performance by engaging all the individuals in the organization in acting and working in a manner which shall guarantee better performance with the organization This process is what holds the key towards the future performance of the business or organization and making it possible for it to achieve its goals within the stated time period. In that case, while adopting these patterns, managers should be aware of the functions and the tasks which have to done and achieved during the management process (Fox & Marcus.2008, p, 34). Generally after takeover, there are no winners or losers. In this kind environment, people normally appreciate and accept as true that thinking and decisions making are better when done cooperatively and individuals are able to show professionalism and discipline in workplaces ,and provide essential considerations that can help the work environment run efficiently. Also if a problem emerge or arise in the workplaces, employees should not hesitate to talk up on the issue. Individuals and organizations should understand what takeover means so that they can be guided by it and function diligently.Similarly workers and employers should be turned on by the strategy so that they can tap resources and establish a successful business entity. In conclusion we can say that takeover is a very important con cept in business and it encourages competition in the global market and promote common respect for each market leaders opinions and capabilities, Promoting takeovers in a firm is creating a good work culture that values collaboration (Brodie, 2010, p ,98). Bibliography Auerbach, Alan J. 1991. Corporate Takeovers: Causes and Consequences. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Ansell, S. , & Park, J. 2003. ‘BP Tech Trends.’ Education Week, 22(35), 43. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete database.
Student Ph and Ph Meter Essay
Student Ph and Ph Meter Essay Student: Ph and Ph Meter Essay UNIT 4 scientific practical techniques 1 .PH Probe A PH probe also known as a PH meter is an electronic device used for measuring the pH (acidity or alkalinity) of a liquid (though special probes are sometimes used to measure the pH of semi-solid substances). A typical pH meter consists of a special measuring probe (a glass electrode) connected to an electronic meter that measures and displays a digital pH reading The glass electrodes must be calibrated using a two point method with the appropriate buffer standard. To perform a two point calibration two buffer solutions are required. These buffers should be based upon the normal measurement range that probe operates in. A probe used for measuring the pH of alkali solutions should use pH buffers 7.0 and 10.0. Likewise, a pH probe in an acidic solution should be calibrated with a 2.0 (or 4.0) and a 7.0 buffer solution. Why this instrument was selected? The pH probe was selected for analysis because it provides accurate (post calibration) pH readings that are digitally taken to 2dp’s, and as we were dealing with solutions of an unknown pH, it is important to know precisely what the pH of each was, as they may have been used in other experiments needing a specific Ph. The use of this respective piece of equipment allowed us to ensure our reading of the pH of 3 unknown solutions was accurate to 2 decimal places, The alternative method would be use of PH litmus papers Litmus papers Litmus is a water-soluble mixture of different dyes extracted from lichens, especially Roccella tinctoria. It is often absorbed onto filter paper to produce one of the oldest forms of pH indicator, used to test materials for acidity. How they are use: Blue litmus paper turns red under acidic conditions and red litmus paper turns blue under basic (i.e. alkaline) conditions, Evaluating and comparing the accuracy of the procedures Advantage of using a PH meter over Litmus papers The PH meter provides a digital reading to 2 decimal places while as the litmus paper gives a rough estimate whether the solution is acidic or alkaline not giving a specific value of levels of the acidity or alkalinity . Disadvantages of using a PH meter over litmus papers For very precise and accurate results the pH meter must be calibrated before each measurement which means the accuracy of the results may be depend on
Sunday, October 20, 2019
Increase in Benefits for Retired and Disabled Veterans
Increase in Benefits for Retired and Disabled Veterans Cost of Living Adjustment to Raise Military Pensions, Disability Benefits The Social Security Administration (SSA) recently announced a 2.8% increase in benefit payments for 2019. A detailed story on the increase- the largest adjustment since 2012- is available here.The cost of living adjustment (COLA) will benefit both military retirees and veterans receiving disability benefits through the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA). Last years increase was 2%, and the previous three years amounted to only 2% combined. Based on $1,500 in benefit payouts each month, the 2.8% COLA increase would provide the recipient with an additional $500 over the course of a year.Setting the BaselineCurrent law allows for automatic COLA increases for those who receive Social Security Disability Insurance (SSDI) or Supplemental Security Income (SSI) through the SSA without congressional intervention. Other federal agencies, including the VA, base their yearly calculation of benefit reauthorizations on the SSAs COLA figures. While veterans’ advocates have long pushed to ma ke these COLA adjustments automatic, they have had little success.The Real EffectThe change will go into effect in January 2019. The law will raise disability benefits, compensation for dependents, clothing allowances, and other benefits. Officials from the SSA indicate more than 67 million Americans will benefit from the increase- which is based on both current and predicted inflation rates.We Can HelpIf you are disabled and unable to work, call Disability Attorneys of Michigan for a free confidential consultation. We’ll let you know if we can help you get a monthly check and help you determine if any money or assets you receive could impact your eligibility for disability benefits.Disability Attorneys of Michigan works hard every day helping the disabled of Michigan seek the Social Security Disability and Veterans Disability benefits they need. If you are unable to work due to a physical, mental, or cognitive impairment, call Disability Attorneys of Michigan now for a free consultation at 800-949- 2900.Let Michigan’s experienced disability law firm help you get the benefits you deserve.Disability Attorneys of Michigan, Compassionate Excellence. Michigan Veteran Disability Benefits, Michigan Veteran Disability Lawyer, Veterans Benefits
Saturday, October 19, 2019
Emergency service managment Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words
Emergency service managment - Research Paper Example Thus, emergencies are evolutionary in that they change with time, such that, every emergency is unlike the other. Therefore, in order to keep up with these changes, emergency management has gone through changes on its own by improving plans and increasing responsibilities. Apart from the original role of coordinating in times of crises, disasters, and their use as resources, emergency managers have new responsibilities. These roles include being informants on potential emergencies to larger institutions such as the government and their affiliate bodies. In addition, emergency managers are accepting new roles involving liaising between various agencies and planning. Prior to the current changes, emergency managers were tasked with a number of duties that directly related to the emergency management. A manager’s role was that of preparing an organization to the capacity of handling any emergency (Sutkus et al 2). Moreover, they were to keep their staff informed on tactics required from them; moreover, they were to participate in frequent training and exercise; in order to keep them in shape in case of any emergency. In addition, emergency managers’ traditional roles do not involve collaboration with partners and engage directly with the community concerning information dissemination and collections of feedback. However, there is a need to have these relationships in place between the public and the management service as well as liaisons with other service providers. An emergency manager is required to have command and control of emergencies by communicating with field operators. Therefore, with this, a manger is allowed to assess the situation adequately and advise on appropriate measures. Thus, with the changes occurring globally in the provision of emergency services, emergency managers require new skills and knowledge. This is in order to cope with the dynamic changes happening everywhere. Emergency managers require the skills to be
Friday, October 18, 2019
Can prison make people live better Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words
Can prison make people live better - Essay Example The prison system exposes convicts to more violence, hence making them more and more capable to commit more serious crimes once released or even in the prison itself. The Bureau of Justice Statistics has performed a study on nonviolent offenders and proves that nonviolent offenders are most likely to become more violent. Based on the statistics of the research, 95% of the nonviolent offenders have a prior arrest and about a third of them have become violent while in prison and even while they are released they show streaks of violence. This is what was seen in the prison at which Barcenas is being held at in Spain. Luis Barcenas has been in jail since mid last year while under investigation for multi-million euro tax fraud and has turned aggressive as the possibility of serving a long term started looking live (Dunham 8). On January 8, a driver was to take him to hospital for general checkups as he and fellow inmates had asked for. He shouted that he was not a criminal as he refused to be handcuffed to the back as mandated by law. After refusing to get in, he began banging and shouting complaints to the police officers. This simple misconduct eventually cost him 140 days without any courtyard time (Dunham 11). As seen from the case of Barcenas, it is quite evident that the mounting pressure of spending more years in prison caused a rather nonviolent man to crack and become aggressive. This may not be the case for other individuals, but the same would be experienced. With also the exposure to other harder criminals, they may pick up the need for aggression in order to survive. Not until they are released, are they able to go back to their normal selves. Because of being branded as convicts and criminals, the society discriminates against them. Branded as such, the ex-convicts face difficulties in the adjustment into the
Network Infrastructure Basics in the LAB Assignment
Network Infrastructure Basics in the LAB - Assignment Example The most important thing about this standard is that there is no backward compatibility it supports. I installed this card in the PCI slot of the motherboard of the PC and completed my LAB. In this LAB (6.2.4) requirement was to set up a wireless environment in by installing a high-speed wireless card in PC and a wireless access device in LAPTOP which is without a wireless built-in wireless adaptor (Habraken, 2003). Another thing to check here was to set up a device so that it can be accessed by any other wireless adaptor. So I used the following devices from the available ones according to the standards given in the LAB 6.2.2 (Wireless Standard Facts). After completing this LAB I have found that 802.11n standard is fastest amongst all the others (802.11a/b/g), with data rate up to 600 Mbps at 2.4 GHz frequency 802.11n promises significantly higher speed and range. It also includes backward compatibility with 802.11 a/b/g (Labsim). In this LAB (6.2.4) it was required to set up a high-speed wireless environment just to transfer files between LAPTOP and computer at very high speed and not to install an extra device. LAPTOP already has a built-in wireless network adaptor. After reviewing LAB 6.2.2 (Wireless Standard Facts) and amongst the given adaptors I choose 802.11b/g adapter. There were many other devices also available in this LAB including an access point. I installed the 802.11b/g wireless adapter on the computer. As per the Wireless Standards, Facts 802.11g operates at 2.4 GHz at speeds up to 54 Mbps. With just the wireless adapter installed, you can create an ad hoc wireless network and connect directly to the laptop to transfer files (Saha, Mukherjee, & Bandyopadhyay, 2003).
The Great Depression Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 3
The Great Depression - Essay Example As the research declares most farmers and companies hence began to incur losses and default on their loans. The situation got worse after some parts of the nation were hit by a terrible drought. America was also operating on a laissez-faire economic policy that did not impose any regulations on businesses. Most companies paid low wages to their workers leading to uneven wealth distribution. The above factors coupled with the fact that Europe was also going through the depression led to an increased decline in the market for American products. It led to the closure of businesses, increase in debts, massive unemployment, and foreclosure of banks. The final blow resulted from the collapse of the New York stock market that led to the loss of billions of dollars of investor money. As the report stresses President Hoover tried to end the economic crisis by encouraging cooperation between government and business, establishing government agencies, fostering labor harmony and attempting to balance the budget. He refused to involve the federal government in manipulating the currency, fixing prices or controlling businesses. He also refused to use federal money to give direct aid citizens hence operated on the principle of rugged individualism. President Franklin Roosevelt, on the other hand, held a much more liberal philosophy as he believed the federal government was required to step in and give direct aid to its people.
Thursday, October 17, 2019
Identify an organization(public or nonprofit) in the grater NYC area Essay
Identify an organization(public or nonprofit) in the grater NYC area and conduct an analysis - Essay Example all to provide humanitarian help by 300 volunteers who were made up of health practitioners: doctors, nurses and other employees who added value to the course (Suen, 2002). The founding principal of this organization is that; all people of whatever gender, race, religion or political inclination, have a right to medical care irrespective of their geographic location. Volunteer members of MSF remain true to their professional code of ethics in the execution of their humanitarian functions and are not inclined to any powers whatsoever, be they economic, political or religious. Besides the above specifics as contained in the n charter, MSF has guiding principles that define its unique operational model. Accoirding to Suen (2002), below are the fundamental doctrines that define this non-profit entity: Medical Ethics: The organization’s actions are fundamentally medical. In this regard, MSF works within the confines of ethical codes in medicine with the core purpose of providing care that does not harm individuals or victim groups. The members, therefore, respect patient autonomy, confidentiality and their right to enlightened consent. Despite their patients being in desperate need, these medical codes are always observed and patient dignity is always upheld. Their cultural and religious beliefs are respected as MSF strives towards the provision of superior quality medical care to all patients in need. Independence: MSF offers assistance to any country in need after an independent assessment of the population’s needs. The organization, therefore, works extremely hard to enjoy the power to freely move among the population to evaluate their medical needs and take full control of their aid. To achieve this power, MSF has a policy of receiving a small portion of their donor funding from governments and other intergovernmental institution. Involving governments make it easier for the organization to work freely even in areas of dangerous political
Service marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words
Service marketing - Essay Example Over the years several researches have been conducted in order to have a better understanding of service marketing. Many of these researches are published in the ‘Journal of Service Marketing’. This report presents three research reports on service marketing. Each of them is published in ‘Journal of Service Marketing’. The report provides a comprehensive outline of all the important theories and analysis that are given in the three research reports. This report is made for the marketing manager of Wal-Mart. Titles of the three journals are ‘Push, scream, or leave: how do consumers cope with crowded retail stores?’, ‘Consumer perceptions of internet-based e-retailing: an empirical research in Hong Kong’ and ‘Services marketing in a cross-cultural environment: the case of Egypt’. These three papers are chosen because they are directly related to the retail sector. The researches and the results that are stated in these th ree papers are expected to help the marketing manager of Wal-Mart to make more effective decisions in future. The research paper titled ‘Push, scream, or leave: how do consumers cope with crowded retail stores?’ is written by Anita Whiting who is from Clayton State University in USA. This report deals with the increasing problem of ‘crowding’ in retail stores. Heavy crowd in retail stores is a persistent problem for both retailers as well as consumers. Consumers are often stressed and frustrated due to heavy crowd in the store. Crowding badly affects the satisfaction level of the consumers. It reduces the time that is spent by the consumer in the store. Re patronage intentions of the consumers are also affected by the crowding. Business organisations can minimize the negative impacts of crowding by understanding the strategies implemented by the consumers to cope with the environment of a crowded retail shop. There
Wednesday, October 16, 2019
The Great Depression Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 3
The Great Depression - Essay Example As the research declares most farmers and companies hence began to incur losses and default on their loans. The situation got worse after some parts of the nation were hit by a terrible drought. America was also operating on a laissez-faire economic policy that did not impose any regulations on businesses. Most companies paid low wages to their workers leading to uneven wealth distribution. The above factors coupled with the fact that Europe was also going through the depression led to an increased decline in the market for American products. It led to the closure of businesses, increase in debts, massive unemployment, and foreclosure of banks. The final blow resulted from the collapse of the New York stock market that led to the loss of billions of dollars of investor money. As the report stresses President Hoover tried to end the economic crisis by encouraging cooperation between government and business, establishing government agencies, fostering labor harmony and attempting to balance the budget. He refused to involve the federal government in manipulating the currency, fixing prices or controlling businesses. He also refused to use federal money to give direct aid citizens hence operated on the principle of rugged individualism. President Franklin Roosevelt, on the other hand, held a much more liberal philosophy as he believed the federal government was required to step in and give direct aid to its people.
Tuesday, October 15, 2019
Service marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words
Service marketing - Essay Example Over the years several researches have been conducted in order to have a better understanding of service marketing. Many of these researches are published in the ‘Journal of Service Marketing’. This report presents three research reports on service marketing. Each of them is published in ‘Journal of Service Marketing’. The report provides a comprehensive outline of all the important theories and analysis that are given in the three research reports. This report is made for the marketing manager of Wal-Mart. Titles of the three journals are ‘Push, scream, or leave: how do consumers cope with crowded retail stores?’, ‘Consumer perceptions of internet-based e-retailing: an empirical research in Hong Kong’ and ‘Services marketing in a cross-cultural environment: the case of Egypt’. These three papers are chosen because they are directly related to the retail sector. The researches and the results that are stated in these th ree papers are expected to help the marketing manager of Wal-Mart to make more effective decisions in future. The research paper titled ‘Push, scream, or leave: how do consumers cope with crowded retail stores?’ is written by Anita Whiting who is from Clayton State University in USA. This report deals with the increasing problem of ‘crowding’ in retail stores. Heavy crowd in retail stores is a persistent problem for both retailers as well as consumers. Consumers are often stressed and frustrated due to heavy crowd in the store. Crowding badly affects the satisfaction level of the consumers. It reduces the time that is spent by the consumer in the store. Re patronage intentions of the consumers are also affected by the crowding. Business organisations can minimize the negative impacts of crowding by understanding the strategies implemented by the consumers to cope with the environment of a crowded retail shop. There
Summary, Paraphrase, and Critical Analysis of a Section Essay Example for Free
Summary, Paraphrase, and Critical Analysis of a Section Essay The Ph. D. dissertation process is an enjoyable and rewarding experience for the doctoral supervisor. The dissertation process involves working with a graduate student to get an idea in motion and following through the research process to new, positive results that lead to obtaining a Ph. D. degree, first job, and publishing career. By staying positive, a doctoral supervisor is able to help students overcome fears, risks, and challenges to achieve great rewards. The opinions in this paper are solely based on one supervisor’s 20 years worth of experience in chairing or as a committee member on 28 dissertations in marketing. The goal of this paper is to analyze the supervisor-student relationship as the dissertation process progresses and develops careers in publishing. Paraphrase A doctoral supervisor of Ph. D. dissertations serves as a critical player in the dissertation process. The supervisor starts by guiding the students to a novel idea that will allow research to culminate with the student obtaining a Ph. D. degree, first job, and published material on the research completed. The dissertation process is riddled with risks, obstacles, and fears by the students, but a supportive and understanding supervisor will allow the students the positive guidance needed for success in the dissertation process. Based on the 20 years experience of one American doctoral supervisor, the goal of the paper is to provide a glimpse at the relationship that is built between a dissertation supervisor and doctoral student during the dissertation process and to show that the rewards of following through are greater than the obstacles. Critical Analysis The written section about the experiences of one American doctoral supervisor of Ph. D. dissertations has a personal, first person view of the graduate process. The paper will appeal to doctoral supervisors and students with an interest in formulating a positive, long-lasting relationship during the graduate school process. This particular supervisor has been personally successful at helping students navigate the dissertation process, obtain first jobs, and develop early careers in publishing. The section is not as effective as it would have been had the author used specific examples of success, rather than just stating that the doctoral supervisor needs to have positive attitude about the process. The author also should explain in more detail his experience in marketing research so as to captivate a wider audience interest in the topic of the section. Overall, the goal of the paper was stated, an outline of the topics to be discussed were given, as well as a brief history of the experience of the writer were discussed and would be of current interest to those dissertation supervisors and doctoral students starting out on the dissertation and career development road.
Monday, October 14, 2019
Motives of internalization and strategic advantages and traits
Motives of internalization and strategic advantages and traits Internationalization can be defined as the desire to be a member of the international society by satisfying a certain standard, or strengthening the influence of a nation on other nations. It becomes the process where multinational enterprise (MNE) engaging, it is very important for these companies to penetrate international market if they want to be accepted and remain successful. (Sreenivasan Jayashree and Sahal Ali Al-Marwai). The internationalization process helps MNEs in maturate their operation in foreign market and enhance their competitive position abroad. According to Hedman (1993), three main alternatives for distributing the enterprises product exist, that is, indirect export, direct export and alternatives to export. When distributing indirectly, the different distribution activities are assigned to one or several intermediaries in the home market. When distributing directly, the producer itself conducts the distribution activities, such as distribution to a foreign importer, which in his turn forward the products to another intermediary or the end customer. (Molnar, 1990) the third alternative, alternatives to export, can take place through, for instance, own production in the target country, or licensing (Hedman, 1993). The rapid changes in todays business world call for new models of internationalization (Fillis, 2001; Meyer and Gelbuda, 2006), especially to be able to capture the early phase of internationalization in a better manner than the traditional models (Johanson and Vahlne, 2003). In contemporary research, Coviello and McAuley (1999), in line with Leonidou and Katsikeas (1996), have pointed at three theory directions that are preferable for studying internationalization, namely Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)-theories (a.k.a., the theory of the Multinational Firm), Stage models and Network theory. Even though these are different theory directions, they are seen to be complementary views where a combination of views is preferred since it is difficult to capture the internationalization concept using only one theoretical framework (Bell et al., 2003; Bjà ¶rkman and Forsgren, 2000; Coviello and Munro, 1997; Meyer and Skak, 2002). Network theory is increasingly being combined with stage theo ry in order to understand and explain the rapid internationalization of the firm (in Bell et al., 2003; Johanson and Vahlne, 1990, 2003; Meyer and Skak, 2002). The process of internationalization has been the subject of widespread theoretical and empirical research (for example, Johanson and Wiedersheim-Paul 1975; Johanson and Vahlne 1977; Bilkey 1978; Cavusgil 1980; Turnbull 1987; Welch and Loustarinen 1988) and finds a general acceptance in the literature (Bradley 1991; Buckley and Ghauri 1993; Leonidou and Katsikeas 1996). The internationalization process is described as a gradual development taking place in distinct stages (Melin 1992). Internationalization processes in emerging markets, as in international markets in general, take place in a stepwise manner (Jansson, 2007). Companies commit themselves through a gradual learning process. Learning is incremental and takes place by doing. Firms learn about doing business abroad, for example, learning about the conditions in particular markets. Companies tend first to establish themselves in geographically and culturally proximate markets and increase their commitment, starting with agents, and passing through sales companies to manufacturing companies (Johanson and Vahlne, 1977; Johanson and Wiedersheim-Paul, 1975). Within the last decades, the business world has changed drastically through globalization and internationalization -creating a new and fierce business environment for companies. We can now see a third wave of internationalization of firms in which companies domiciled in mature Western markets establish themselves on a large scale in emerging markets such as Central and Eastern Europe (CEE), Russia, China and India (Jansson, 2007). A recent phenomena of firm from Asian capital exporting countries were internationalizing and multinationalizing their business activities and have emerged or are emerging as Asian multinational enterprises (World Bank, 1993). They started the internationalizing activities and investing and setting up operation in other countries since mid-1980. Research interest which focus on these Asian enterprises and their direct investment activities arise in recent years (Ting, 1985; Ulagado et al., 1994; Yeung 1994, 1997). Foreign direct investment (FDI) started on the early 1980s. According to studies done by Lall, 1983;Well, 1983; Kumar and McLeod, 1981; Khan, 1986; Monkiewicz, 1986; Aggarwal and Agmon,1990; Tolentino, 1993, FDI of Third World multinational enterprises (TWMNEs), slightly different with the traditional MNEs from the western developed countries in term of their characteristic. The growth of East Asia (World Bank, 1993) in late 1980 and early 1990, has increased intra-regional direct investment. The directed investment process from Japan , followed by Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Singapore and the activities transferring from one level of economies to another in Malaysia, Indonesia and Thailand has been depicted as wild flying geese pattern. (Toh and Low,1994; Guisinger, 1991). As a result, these Asian capital exporting countries firm internationalizing and multinationalizing their business activities and have emerged or are emerging as Asian multinational enterprises (World Bank, 1993). Problem Statement During these extremely competitive times, the international business environment is one that is normally full of immense uncertainty, volatility as well as a high rate of failure when it comes to international expansion The research on the nature, organization and operations of these emerging Asian international and multinational enterprises are limited. This is because research in international business and trade has been dependent largely upon economistic and western-centric theories developed predominantly in industrial and institutional economics (Buckley and Casson, 1985; Dunning, 1988, 1993). A study shown internationalization is the crucial factor for a firm to grow and develop economically and technologically (Syed Zamberi Ahmad and Fariza Hashim, 2007). Hence, it is very important for multinational companies to conduct a comprehensive examination of the various important factors that could influence the type of strategy that is to be selected for international market entry. 1.3 Objectives This research is dedicated to all local Malaysian companies who are looking at ways and means to internationalize their operations to a foreign market and would be of tremendous assistance to them in determining the correct strategic path and improve the understanding of the Asian MNEs characteristic. 1.4 Research Question According to the problem statement above, the author has formulated some question to meet the research objective. The question are : What are the key characteristics and success of their foreign ventures? What are the motives for internationalization? What are the entry strategies? What are the strategic advantages and traits? Research Contribution Government: Through this study, government can carry out some government policy to lead more firm success in their international proses in expanding their business. Firms: This study provides information to provide better understand characteristic and strategy for the purpose of internationalization which can increase the net profit of the firm. Economic: This study enable economist to better understand how development of economic on a country can help MNEs in their internationalization process. 1.6 Summary This study proposal consists 3 chapters. Chapter 1 provides the overview of the recent phenomena of internationalization, the problem statement, objectives, and question. Chapter 2 displays literature review by past research, followed by concept and theories, and research framework. Chapter 3 describes the research methodology, sampling technique, data collection, data analysis and research planning that use to analysis the finding in Chapter 4. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction This chapter reviews the past studies about the concept and theory which included internationalization process, entry notes and process, eclectic explanation, foreign direct investment, regional and global internationalization processes, Uppsala model and Asian context. After that it follows by the research framework. 2.2 Concept and Theory 2.2.1 Internationalization processes Internationalization processes in emerging markets, as in international markets in general, take place in a stepwise manner (Jansson, 2007). Companies commit themselves through a gradual learning process. Learning is incremental and takes place by doing. Firms learn about doing business abroad, for example, learning about the conditions in particular markets. Companies tend first to establish themselves in geographically and culturally proximate markets and increase their commitment, starting with agents, and passing through sales companies to manufacturing companies (Johanson and Vahlne, 1977; Johanson and Wiedersheim-Paul, 1975). Research on the exports of mainly North American companies has reached similar results (Bilkey, 1978; Cavusgil, 1980; Czinkota, 1982; Reid, 1981). Such process theories are highly useful especially when studying international 66 H. Jansson, S. Sandberg / Journal of International Management 14 (2008) 65-77 business in CEE. Learning processes are essential s ince the company needs to adapt to an emerging and different business context, such as exists in the CEE (Meyer and Gelbuda, 2006). As noted by Sharma and Blomstermo (2003b) a basic assumption in internationalization process theory is that knowledge accumulation is continuous and dependent upon the duration of foreign operations. The longer firms have been involved in foreign operations, the more knowledge they accumulate about such operations. There is a relationship between knowledge accumulation and risk so that the more knowledge a firm has, the less uncertain they perceive the foreign market to be. Firms that lack knowledge about foreign markets even tend to overestimate risks. This corresponds to what Jansson (1989) found concerning establishment processes in a regional perspective, namely that the pace of investments in Southeast Asian countries accelerated, the more experienced the firms became in an area. Johanson and Vahlne (1990) stated that Uppsala model of internationalization indicated firms reveal an evolutionary process in internationalizing through a series of evolutionary stage. 2.2.2 Entry nodes and entry processes Firms entering emerging markets face several barriers according to Meyer (2001). These barriers include a lack of information, unclear regulations and corruption. According to traditional research on internationalization processes, market entries either take place through intermediaries such as agents or distributors or through a firms own representative in the exporting/importing country, mainly a subsidiary. In terms of research in this area, scholars have found that relationships are at the core of the internationalization process (Axelsson and Johanson, 1992; Ford, 2002; Hà ¥kansson, 1982; Hà ¥kansson and Snehota, 1995; Hammarkvist et al., 1982; Jansson, 1994, 2007; Johanson and Vahlne, 2003; Majkgà ¥rd and Sharma, 1998). According to the network approach to internationalization, entries into local market networks take place through establishing relationships. The international marketing and purchasing of products and know-how through a direct exporter/importer network means that a vertical network in the exporting region (e.g. a suppliers supplier network) is indirectly connected to another vertical network in the importing region (e.g. a buyers buyer network). This large vertical network will, in turn, be embedded in other regional and national networks, such as a financial network (Jansson, 2006, 2007). From a network perspective, establishment points in foreign market networks are defined as entry nodes. There are various routes into these networks, or nodes by which a firm can enter a network. Entries through trade either take place H. Jansson, S. Sandberg / Journal of International Management 14 (2008) 65-77 67 directly with customers or indirectly through intermediaries. Direct relationships, dyads, can be established between buyer and seller in the respective countries. Indirect relationships, triads, involve an outside party or other type of entry node, usually an intermediary such as an agent, dealer or distributor. Dyads can also be established through the entry mode FDI (a subsidiary in the importing country). Entry processes take place by building relationships to form networks in foreign markets. Irrespective of entry node, the development of international buyer/seller relationships tends to follow a five stage pattern (Ford, 1980, 2002; Ford et al., 1998). Each stage of the entry process can be described by a number of relationship factors, such as how the experience, commitment and adaptations of the parties increase across the stages and how the distance and uncertainty between them are reduced across the stages. The first stage includes the taking-up of marketing/purchasing activities before a formal relationship begins. The next three stages show how direct buyer-seller relationships within networks are established: from their beginning and to their deepening. Experience indicates the amount of experience the respective parties have with each other. They will gauge their partners commitment to the relationship, e.g. by the willingness to make adaptations. Distance is multifaceted and it can be split into social, cultural, technological, time and geographic distance. Uncertainty deals with the fact that at the initial stages, it is difficult to assess the potential rewards and costs of the relationship. In the fifth and final stage, the relationship is extensively institutionalized and habitual, with commitment being taken for granted. Based on Terpstra and Sarathy, 1991; and Baek, 2003, joint ventures with host governments and local partners in the host country were among the preferred entry strategies for international operational operation. Petronas in South Africa entered into a commercial alliance with Engen in 1996 as a strategic partner. The acquisition was to enable both companies to implement a shared growth strategy in Africa and the Indian Ocean Rim, while allowing the development of potential operational synergies between the two business entities (Padayachee and Valodia, 2002). 2.2.3 Eclectic Explanation Eclectic Paradigm is a proverbial known explanation of international production. Dunnings (1977, 1988, 1993, 1995). Eclectic Paradigm stated that the extent and pattern of international production is determined by: 1) Ownership advantages (for example, proprietary technology, products, expertise and skill) 2) Internalization advantages (for example, transaction costs reduction, maximize economic return), and 3) Location advantages of host and home countries These OLI (Ownership Location Internalization) variables listed above explain the reason internationalization occurs but overlook the dynamic process of internationalization. The Eclectic paradigm is provided by the Investment Development Path (Dunning, 1981, 1986) with a dynamic dimension, and relates the net outward investment of a country to its stage of economic development. Five stages of IDP ( Investment Development Path) Stage 1: At low level of economic development, there is little inward or outward investments. Stage 2: Inward investment becomes attractive, especially in import substitution projects as the country develops. Some outward investment may take place in neighborly countries which at lower stages of development. Most developing countries with some outward investments are at this stage. Stage 3: With economic development move forward, net inward investment declines while outward investment increases (relative to inward investment). Increasing of outward investment may take place in countries at lower IDP stages in order to overcome cost disadvantages in labour intensive industries and also to seek markets or strategic assets. Singapore, Taiwan and South Korea are said to be at this stage. Stage 4: As production being multinationalized, net outward investment becomes positive. Most developed countries are at this stage. Stage 5: The shift from advantages based more on factor endownment to those based on internalizing international market convergent outward and inward investment flows. Empirical research on Third World (including Asian) multinationals has given general support to the IDP concept (Dunning, 1986; Tolentino, 1993; Dunning Narula, 1996; Lall, 1996). Dunning and Narula (1996) acknowledge that country factors may influence the IDP pattern of a country, such as resource endownment, home market size, industrialization strategy, government policy, and the organization of economic activities. TWMNEs were smaller than their counterparts from developed countries and have limited number of overseas operations. The competitive advantages of TWMNEs were based on cost advantages (particularly labour cost) and greater responsiveness to host country needs which is different from western MNEs. They served market niches which were not covered by the traditional MNEs and so were not in direct competition with them. The major motivation for these FDI was protecting export markets rather than exploiting rent from proprietary technological know-how (or other ownership spe cific advantages characteristic of western MNEs) explained in theories, such as the eclectic paradigm of Dunning (1977, 1995). TWMNEs possessed first or second generation labour-intensive technologies and produced standardized products mainly for the domestic host country market which at stage 4 of IDP. Wells (1983) presupposes a pecking order hypothesis to suggest that the TWMNEs technologies could fill the technological gap between the advanced technology of developed country MNEs and the rudimentary technology of less developed countries (LDCs) in a pecking down order. Lall (1983) emphasized the flexibility and adaptability of TWMNEs technologies to be more suitable or appropriate to LDC situations. 2.2.4 Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) It may seem surprising that there is significant number of foreign direct investments by some firms from developing countries because it is usually credited to more developed countries. A number of studies indicate that FDI flows not only from the industrialized or well-developed countries, as well as developing countries. Scholars such as Lecraw (1981, 1993), Wells (1977, 1981), Lall (1983a, and 1983b), Kumar and Lim (1984), Ulgado et. al., (1994) are only some of those who have carried out empirical studies and researched FDI flows from developing country firms in the 1970s and 1980s. Comparisons between the nature of international expansion of firms from developing countries and the nature of those corporations that originated from developed countries are made in most of these studies (Dunning, 1986; Vernon-Wortzel and Wortzel, 1988). In general, it has been depicted that the competitive advantages of MNCs from developed country are derived from advanced proprietary technology or other superior resources (Yeung, 1994). While ability to reduce costs of imported technology through de-scaled manufacturing or smaller scale of production is focus of the competitive advantage from developing country MNCs were derived from their This is a process whereby technologies from industrialised countries are adapted to suit smaller markets by reducing scale, replacing machinery with manual labour, and relying on local inputs (Ramamurti, 2004). Outward direct investment from developing countries started to grow rapidly to a sizeable magnitude during the mid-1980. This became the main tool of developing country multinationals in demanding that their constituent firms prepare for the drastically international competition that they were about to face(Kumar, 1996, 1997). The emergence of new technologies in the late 1980s somehow decreases the interest in outward direct investment from developing countries subsided (Kumar, 1996; Oh et. al., 1998; Pananond and Zeithaml, 1998; van Hoesel, 1999). Pananond and Zeithaml(1998) and van Hoesel(1999) recounted that aggregate analyses of developing country MNEs conducted at the industry level get attention from scholars and yielded interesting results by the early 1990s. They concluded that there were marked differences in characteristics between developing country MNEs in the 1980s and 1990s. Scholars posited that these two groups of MNEs belonged to two different waves of development i n term of their respective historical backgrounds, nature of businesses, extent of the role of government in operations and transactions, geographical direction, and mode of internationalisation activity. MNEs in the 1980s are more concerned with cost competitiveness with their competitors (van Hoesel, 1999). In contrast, developing country MNEs in the 1990s placed greater emphasis on the development and reset business strategies due to the dynamic changing patterns of world business structure brought about by trade liberalisation and economic globalisation (Dunning et al., 1997). Besides this, they put more effort on technological competence as the source of competitive advantage (Pananond and Zeithmal, 1998). They noted that notwithstanding these differences, there existed several significant interrelated points of convergence between the two groups (Dunning et al., 1997; van Hoesel, 1999). 2.1.5 Regional and global internationalization processes In analyzing the early internationalization steps of smaller and less experienced companies, the internationalization process model by Johanson and Vahlne (1977) is regarded as a highly useful tool. In internationalization research, few studies have been conducted on higher level internationalization where companies are established in several countries and have fully-owned businesses (Meyer and Gelbuda, 2006). The more countries in a region a firm exports to, the more extensive is the regional internationalization process. The more regions a firm exports to, the more global is the internationalization process. New stages of internationalization are established when a firm extends its business from one major type of market to another or from one type of foreign environment to another. The main factor behind these stages is experiential knowledge, meaning that firms gradually build a knowledge base through operating in foreign markets. They learn from past experience by transforming this experience to useful knowledge. There are three types of such knowledge (Eriksson et al., 1997). Internationalization knowledge about how to perform international operations is an expression of a firms current stock of knowledge in the form of its resources and capabilities. The more novel the foreign environment, the more difficult it is for the firm to apply its current stock of knowledge to that foreign market. This means that there is a gap between a firms present internationalization knowledge and the knowledge the company has about how to do business in the specific foreign market, i.e. concerning its network experiential knowledge and institutional knowledge (Blomstermo et al., 2004). Based on a firms experiential knowledge process, internationalization processes are often divided into different degrees of internationalization. Johanson and Mattsson (1991) discuss the internationalization process for firms with various degrees of internationalization and propose that the process is mainly valid during the early stages of a firms internationalization: inexperienced firms tend to follow a traditionally slow and gradual pattern, while the internationalization of a more experienced company is less slow and gradual. 2.2.6 Uppsala model The Uppsala model (Johanson Weidersheim-Paul, 1975; Johanson Vahlne, 1977) provides an explanation of the dynamic process of internationalization of individual firms. The Uppsala model emphasize on the importance of gaining knowledge and experience about the characteristics of foreign markets along the internationalisation path, and helps MNEs reduced risks and levels of uncertainty in unfamiliar foreign environments before investing (Wiedersheim-Paul et al., 1978). The successive steps of increasing highly commitment are based on knowledge acquisition. Foreign activities started with export to foreign country through independent representative or agent, after that establish sales subsidiary and finally start production in the host country. The internationalization of the firm across many foreign markets was particularly related to psychic distance which included differences in language, education, business practices, culture and industrial development. Firstly, enter foreign market which closer in term of psychic distance, followed by subsequent entries in markets with greater psychic distances. Same goes to entry mode of foreign market. The incremental expansion of market commitment meant that the initial entry was typically some form of low commitment mode and followed by progressively higher levels of commitment. Obviously, commitment of the level of ownership in different markets was correlated with their psychic distance. The Uppsala model had received general support in empirical research (Welch and Loustarinen, 1988; Davidson, 1980, 1983; Erramilli et al., 1999) and its largely intuitive nature and evolutionary learning perspective made it attractive as an explanatory model. A related view regards learning was that TWMNEs built up their advantages through the accumulation of technology and skills. Lall (1983) emphasized on the localization and adaptation of technology to suit local markets by TWMNEs. Tolentino (1993) focused in term of the accumulation of technological competence in the expansion of firms from developing countries which was consistent with the resource-based view of building competitive advantage in strategic management. The accumulation of knowledge and competence especially its knowledge of developing markets and not so much its technology by the CP Group in Thailand was the key to its internationalization. There are also differences between the CP Group and Western MNEs (Pananond and Zeithaml, 1998). Mathews (2002, 2006) postulated that emerging firms could foster internationalization via leverage of their contractual linkages with other foreign firms to acquire resources and learning new capabilities. He indicated that this explanati on complemented the OLI framework and could be used to explain the rise of such latecomer firms which he dubbed as Dragon multinationals. 2.2.7 Asian Context Yeung (1999); Zutshi Gibbons (1989) portrayed that western theories on internationalization have neglect the active role played by the state and overlooked the institutional or contextual perspective in the internationalization of Asian. Asians state always plays a direct and active role in the internationalization of its MNEs. For example, the Singapore government played a key and direct role in the promotion of outward FDI (e.g., growth triangles, industrial parks in foreign countries), particularly from the early 1990s in its regionalization programs (Pang, 1994; Tan, 1995; ESCAP/UNCTAD, 1997). Incentives and other programs for instance tax incentives, finance schemes, training also provided to foster the rapid development of local entrepreneurship in the regionalization efforts. In Malaysia, the government took a very active role in promoting the internationalization of Malaysian firms. Investment promotion missions abroad were organized and often lead by the Prime Minister. The government provided incentives including tax abatement in 1991 and subsequently full tax exemption in 1995 for income earned overseas and remitted back to Malaysia. An overseas investment guarantee program was instituted. Malaysian government instructed firms to defer non-essential overseas investment in order to reduce the impact of the effects of the 1997 Asian financial crisis. In the Asian context, the state has played a very active and direct role in promoting the internationalization of its national firms. This is much different with the western context, where the role of the state is benign and indirect. 2.3 Summary This chapter first discussed the internationalization process in terms of entry notes and process, eclectic explanation, foreign direct investment, regional and global internationalization processes, Uppsala model and Asian context. The following chapter discusses the research method, survey development, and sample selection CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This chapter provides an overview of the research method. It starts by explaining the appropriateness of the research method. Then discusses the research design which consists of seven steps: questionnaire development, literature review, proposal, data collection, data analysis, discussion and conclusion, and write-up. Next the data collection and sample selection is discussed with reasons for each of the decisions involved. The next section discusses the statistical methods. Lastly, a Gantt chart will be use to estimate the times use in each activity. 3.2 Sampling Technique A case study approach will be using in this paper. It tends to provide in depth information and intimate details about the particular case being studied. This approach was used to collect comprehensive and holistic data (Eisenhardt, 1989; Internationalization Strategies of Emerging Asian MNEs 491 Yin, 1994) about firms that have internationalized their operations over time. The focus here is on MNEs from Malaysia (a fast developing country). Case studies mean that the research investigates few objects in many respects (Wiedersheim-Paul, Eriksson, 1991). Case studies are most suitable if you like to get a detailed understanding about different kinds of process (Lekvall Wahlbin, 1987). The researches may, for instance, choose a line of business and an enterprise, and conduct an in depth investigation (Wiedersheim-Paul, Eriksson, 1991). Yin (1994) states, that when the form of the questions is why and how, the case study strategy is most likely to be appropriate. The research problem I have investigated was how the internationalisation process of a MNEs when entering to foreign market can be characterised , which was divided into four research questions. 3.3 Data Collection 3.3.1 Secondary data Eriksson Wiedersheim-Paul (1997) points out that secondary data is data, which already has been collected by someone else, for another purpose. Statistics, and reports issued by governments , trade associations, and so on, are some sources of secondary data (Chisnall, 1997). The annual report and the enterprises homepage, are another sources of secondary data (Wiedersheim-Paul, Eriksson, 1991). Secondary data research should always be carried out before doing any field survey (Chisnall, 1991). When I had defined the research area, I started to search for relevant literature. The databases that I have used to find relevant literature are EBSCOhost, Science Direct, Libris, ABI/INFORM, and Helecon. The keywords used when searching the databases were international business, Malaysian MNEs, internationalization, strategies, mode of entry. These words were co
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)