Racism in Northern Irish Society Essay - 2935 Words

Q. Racism in Ireland and Northern Ireland is on the rise. Critically assess the explanations for this rise in either Ireland or Northern Ireland. (Word Count 2265) This working paper attempts to gain a better understanding of the causes of racism within Northern Ireland. In order to do this effectively, it is first necessary to look at the diverse meaning of racism as well as providing statistics to show that racism is a continuing problem within contemporary society. These statistics alone pose many problems through their collection and their questionable inability of response by the police and the criminal justice system (Haughey 2012). Policies and strategies that are put in place to tackle†¦show more content†¦This reflects the CJS and the Police’s inability to respond to hate crime, as the clearance rate has fallen from 20.5% in 2005/2006 to 12.5% in 2008/2009 (Haughey 2012). Only 12 out of 14,000 incidents of hate crime in the last five years have lead to successful prosecutions. Patrick Yu (executive director of Northern Ireland for ethnic minorities) would stress the importance of a blueprint to tackle hate race crime, similar to that of the Macpherson Report in England and Wales (Fergus 2010). The European Convention of Human Rights (ECHR) which is implemented by the Human Rights Act 1998, states that authorities, ‘have the duty to act in a way which is compatible with the individual rights and freedoms contained in the ECHR,’ (Morrow, 2012: 1). If this policy is not adhered to, many violations occur, including; right to a fair trial, right to life and freedom of expression, etc (Morrow 2012). Under the Race Relations (NI) Order 1997, it is of statutory functions to, ‘promote good relations between persons of different racial groups’ (Equality Commission for Northern Ireland 2012). In looking at the racial equality strategy of 2005-2010, the strategy aimed to; eliminate unlawful discrimination, promote equality of opportunity and to pr tackle racial inequalities, eradicate racism and hate crime alongside the policy for ‘A shared future’ to promote good relations (A racial Equality Strategy for Northern Ireland 2007).Show MoreRelatedAnalysis of The Irish Way by James R. Barrett1572 Words   |  7 Pages Analysis The book, â€Å"The Irish Way† by James R. Barrett is a masterpiece written to describe the life of Irish immigrants who went to start new lives in America after conditions at home became un-accommodative. Widespread insecurity, callous English colonizers and the ghost of great famine still lingering on and on in their lives, made this ethnic group be convinced that home was longer a home anymore. They descended in United States of America in large numbers. James R. Barrett in his book notesRead MoreThe Hegemonic Construction Of Ireland2740 Words   |  11 PagesMigration has fundamentally changed the nature of Irish society. Ireland has recently become a country of immigration; nonetheless the changes have been rapid and have changed the country significantly both north and south of the boarder. It is one of a number of peripheral European countries which has transformed from having a lengthy history of emigration, to becoming a recipient of substantial inward migration. In Ireland today, migration â€Å"Is one of the topics under discussion† (Gilmartin WhiteRead MoreThe Age Of The Civil War1592 Words   |  7 Pagesgeographical area. There were pros and there were cons during this time in America. The cons seemed to outweigh the pros; racism, wars, and other societal problems became major issues within North America. The age of the Civil War revealed the United of States Americas societal and racial issues in great depth. Acts of murder, assault, larceny, and destruction all took place in the Northern hemisphere of America. There were a series of riots that took place after the announcement of the draft law. The DraftRead MoreIrish Immigrants and the New York Draft Riots of 18631453 Words   |  6 Pageswho opposed to the Civil War, draft and Emancipation Proclamation. This paper will discuss how the Irish immigrants in New York affected the draft riots of 1863, and the reason behind their participation, exploring specifically the social, cl ass and racial issues the Irish immigrants faced. The United States saw an influx of Irish immigrants due to the Great Famine (potatoes) in Ireland. The Irish were misunderstood especially in New York because many of them came from the rural farm lands in IrelandRead MoreDefusing the Conflict in Northern Ireland1499 Words   |  6 Pagesreligious discrepancy had a real effect on the Irish people, interfering with their Catholic tradition. The Irish people had longed for independence from the British for a long time; but, Britain really managed to agitate the Irish when they sent settlers from Britain and Scotland to settle in Northern Ireland. This agitation eventually grew into the Northern Ireland War, as the Protestants began to take control. If the Protestants had just settled into Northern Ireland and went about their life, thereRead MoreTerrorism Influences1537 Words   |  7 Pagesterrorist attacks. â€Å"Through the past two hundred years, terrorism has been used to achieve political ends and has developed as a tool fo r liberation, oppression, and international global politics† (â€Å"State Of Delaware†, 2012). The Russian Revolution and Irish Republican Army Influence on Western Hemisphere The Russian revolution was responsible for the deaths of thousands of people. It was here that the idealization of revolutionary terrorism first surfaced. â€Å"Revolutionary Terrorism emerged as a strategicRead MoreThe Speed And Lowered The Expense Of Commerce845 Words   |  4 Pagesimmigration. Many immigrants settled in northern states. Numerous factors inspired this massive flow of population across the Atlantic. European economic conditions were going down. Introduction of the ocean-going steamship made trans-Atlantic transportation more convenient. American religious and political freedoms attracted many Europeans fleeing from the failed revolutions of 1848. The Irish were refugees from disaster, fleeing the Irish potato famine. They filled manyRead MoreImmigration In The 19th Century Essay895 Words   |  4 Pageswithout immigration the creation of America would not have been possible. The majority of immigrants came to America for religious freedom and economic opportunities. However, for the most part before the 1870’s most immigrants were Protestants from northern and western Europe. These immigrants often migrated to the United States as families and usually lived on farms with family or friends who had already migrated beforehand. A lot of immigrants came to America with a plan or goal in mind. They oftenRead MoreThe United States And India1347 Words   |  6 Pagesdeveloped their societies through these divisions. They are still discriminated against and in some cases, a specific one being of the lack of education funds provided for Native American schools amongst the nation. With there being â€Å"The federal government is responsible for 183 native American schools across 23 statesâ €  and in ensuring an equalitarian learning system. (Mic, 2014) But so far has not yet done so. Social issues amongst Native American school equality have resulted from racism in the pastRead MoreRacism in the American Society in the 1920s Essay example1000 Words   |  4 PagesRacism in the American Society in the 1920s Black people have always been a part of Americas history. They were brought to America in the seventeenth century as slaves by white settlers. Slavery ended by the nineteenth century, and by this time there were more black Americans than white Americans in the southern states. However, Blacks always had a tough time, this is due to the stereotypical view that the people had of them. The whites believed that the Blacks were

The Food And Drug Administration - 898 Words

According to the regulations established by the FDA in 1992, â€Å"Under this policy, foods, such as fruits, vegetables, grains, and their byproducts, derived from plant varieties developed by the new methods of genetic modification are regulated within the existing framework of the act† (FDA). In other words, instead of creating new regulations that are specific to these completely unique food products, they are put within the umbrella of other â€Å"natural† products. As time passes it appears to be harder to establish strict regulations to manage genetically modified food. According to the Center for Food Safety the most current propose of the Food and Drug Administration establishes that agricultural biotech companies should notify the FDA within a period of 120 before the companies proceed to introduce the product to the market. Regrettably, there is not mention of any regulation that requires assessment for health and environmental safety. This leave the companies with the freedom decide the kind of test that they want to perform if they decide to do so. But most important if this proposal is successful approve it will mean that the companies will have the right to freely even control what they want to include on their labels, which it will most likely exclude the mentioning of genetically modified food. The FDA is not the only agency that neglects the responsibility to adequately manage genetically modified products, the EPA fails to assess the damage that is cause byShow MoreRelatedThe Food And Drug Administration1204 Words   |  5 PagesThe Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is best known for its role on protecting the health of the public by making sure that food, medications are safe and effective. Especially when it comes to the pharmaceutical industry, its mission is to regulate pharmaceutical manufacturers, as well as the drug approval process. However, in the recent years, many arguments and controversy regarding drug development and regulation have risen. Drug advertisements make false and misleading claims, products areRead MoreThe Food And Drug Administration Essay848 Words   |  4 PagesThe Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is responsible for protecting and promoting  public health  through regulating pharmaceutical drugs, biologics and medical device in context to granting approvals for marketing authorization, surveillance of the clinical trial study of the drug, post-marketing surveillance of the medical product, etc. The Pharmaceutical companies seek for FDA approval for a new drug to be marketed through a long process. This process starts with applying an application knownRead MoreThe Food And Drug Administration1017 Words   |  5 Pagescosmetic products on the market all over the world than ever before. There has also been an emphasis on beauty and how one presents themselves to others. The combination of these factors lead to an increase in demand for cosmetics. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has little to no control over the regulation over the safety of the ingredients included in personal care products on the market. Problems arise because there are known and identified toxic chemicals in many cosmetics, but not muchRead MoreThe Food And Drug Administration1740 Words   |  7 Pagesto decline and present a risk to future food security. As a world, we are facing an adaptation deficit leaving us very vulnerable and thus, we must seek to find alternative resources to adapt and mitigate the risk to agriculture. One solution might be attributed to genetically modified foods, which are found in 80% of processed foods today, much to the unawareness of public consumers. In America, the Food and Drug Administration has the authority over food labeling and it has concluded that thereRead MoreThe Food And Drug Administration1903 Words   |  8 Pages2016. On December 1, 2014, the US Food and Drug Administration released a Final Rule clarifying the requirements, which include easy-to-see calorie counts for all â€Å"standard menu items,† as well as the inclusion of statements communicating the average daily intake of 2,000 calories and informing consumers that more detailed nutritional information can be obtained by request (Goldman, 2015). The goal of this rule is â€Å"to make nutrition information for certain foods available to consumers in a directRead MoreThe Food And Drug Administration2463 Words   |  10 PagesConsumers thus should be concerned what they put in their bodies. The Food and Drug Administration is regulating food, but people are sicker now than they ever have been. Not only them, but the big pharmaceutical companies also play a role in this giving drugs to people to help their problems but end up with a host of other problems from their fix. With this project I hope to show how incompetent the Food and Drug Administration is by unveiling what synthetic vitamins really are, the chemicals usedRead MoreThe Food And Drug Administration843 Words   |  4 PagesThe Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved naltrexone in 1994 to assist in the treatment of alcohol dependence (Mark et. al, 2003). According to multiple studies of various sizes the medication has been proven to be highly beneficial in assisting with alcohol withdrawal and relapse (Leavitt, 2002; Rohsenow, 2004; Williams, 2005). With the approval of the FDA and the backing of many studies, why is this wonder drug not being more widely used? The following will address how naltrexone worksRead MoreThe Food And Drug Administration1142 Words   |  5 PagesAndy Nunez English 1101 Amy Sandefur 9 September 2014 Dear Michael Taylor, As senior advisor of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), I understand that you must have thousand of proposals being addressed to you everyday. I also understand that the FDA is responsible for tests that use dogs, primates and other species as test subjects to meet legal safety requirements. (Navs.org) At the same time, I, and millions of other people believe that the laws on animal experimentation need to be reviewedRead MoreThe Food And Drug Administration1430 Words   |  6 Pagesto the sugary taste of many foods and go by many names – saccharin, aspartame, and sucralose  ¬Ã¢â‚¬â€œ but they are all formulated by chemical engineers. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) describes artificial sweeteners as â€Å"probably safe,† and this statement has proven to be quite true (Nestle). For several years, aspartame and saccharin have been linked to weight gain and cancer in consumers and lab animals (Nestle). Because artificial sweeteners are used in many food pro ducts (most commonly dietRead MoreThe Food And Drug Administration1298 Words   |  6 PagesIn 2000, the US Food and Drug Administration issued a health claim which states that consuming foods containing plant sterol and stanol esters along with other low cholesterol and saturated fat foods can reduce the risk of coronary heart disease (Jones, Vanstone, Raeini-Sarjaz, St-Onge, 2003). Today, many functional foods in the form of margarines, spread, yogurt, and others, have been enriched with phytosterols and advocated as being able to reduce the risk of coronary heart disease. Phytosterols

How far do you think Twelfth Night succeeds as a comedy Free Essays

When one considers the convention of the Elizabethan romantic comedy, a light-hearted tale of love in which obstacles are overcome- often to resolve with a marriage, Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night certainly challenges the convention. Although the resolution of the joining of three couples: Orsino and Viola; Olivia and Sebastian and Sir Toby and Maria satisfies the criteria for a romantic comedy in some way, the bizarre nature in which some of these relationships come about makes the audience question the likelihood of their successes. In addition, Shakespeare leaves an open denouement in that the amorous outcomes some characters (Malvolio, Antonio and Sir Andrew) are negative- being left alone or unresolved. We will write a custom essay sample on How far do you think Twelfth Night succeeds as a comedy? or any similar topic only for you Order Now The melodramatic manner in which Orsino muses over Olivia at the very start of Act 1 seems to suggest that the unrequitedness of love is more for comedic value rather than a valid representation of true love and thus cannot be taken seriously. Orsino’s hyperbolic soliloquy of his love, â€Å"give me excess of it, so that it may sicken and so die† and later the pun of â€Å"was I turned into a hart, and my desires, like fell and cruel hounds, e’er since pursue me† support this as this painful love is unbelievably developed seeing as he hardly knows Olivia and one could say he is in love with the chase of Olivia- the challenge. To me, this behaviour is reminiscent of the young Romeo’s fanciful love for Rosaline when he soliloquises with confused oxymoronic language, and, as in Romeo and Juliet, it could be interpreted that Shakespeare uses Orsino to make a satirical comment on the shallowness of courtly love. The contrived speech Orsino gives to Cesario to recite to Olivia, a common occurrence in Elizabethan times, includes â€Å"most radiant, exquisite and unmatchable beauty. There is a lack of conviction in these disingenuous words- only used to fulfil the romantic expectation. This disingenuousness is further comedically lampooned by Shakespeare by the way in which Cesario explains that this speech â€Å"took great pains to study† and how she â€Å"can say little more than [she has] studied. † This foreshadows the fact that lack of love or happiness will be present at the ending. However, when one compares this relationship to that between Orsino and the revealed Viola at the climax, it seems as though it was inevitable, as Orsino seems attracted to Cesario’s feminine features from the start, as he states that â€Å"Diana’s lip is not more smooth and rubious; thy small pipe is as the maiden’s organ, shrill and sound, and all is semblative a woman’s part,† which provokes comical dramatic irony to the audience. In addition, the iambic pentameter which the two share in act 2 scene 4, â€Å"Viola: I should your Lordship. Orsino: And what’s her history? Viola: Sir, shall I to this lady? Orsino: Ay, that’s the theme† has become synonymous with the inevitability of a couple’s destiny to be together, highlighting the balance the couple share with each other and is used frequently in Romeo and Juliet for this reason. However, it could also be said that the success of this relationship is unlikely due to the fact that Orsino goes as far as to wish death upon Cesario, although I believe that Shakespeare uses this purely to express Orsino’s frustration for having sexual feelings towards a boy, and feelings which seem more genuine than his courtly, more suitable love for Olivia, although Cesario does continue to call Viola â€Å"Cesario† and â€Å"boy,† which could mean that Orsino’s dramatic purpose is to prove that one can be attracted to both the masculine and feminine features of a person, as Shakespeare seemed to have experienced himself as mentioned in the â€Å"two loves† of sonnet 144. Shakespeare portrays a more blatant presentation of homosexual attraction through Antonio. To me, Antonio’s love for Sebastian seems the truest of all, with him revealing the extent of which as he says â€Å"I do adore thee so, that danger shall seem sport and I will go†, and he does keep to his word as he is willing to enter Orsino’s court, going as far as risking his life, yet Shakespeare leaves him â€Å"unhappy and alone. Shakespeare uses this love to make a serious point rather than a comedic one about how the most passionate loves can be found in circumstances other than the conventional man and woman, as at the time of the play, homosexual relationships in theatre were usually presented in a ridiculous manner for comedic value to laugh at the ostensible folly of it, or mere carnal lust, as opposed to the utter devotion spoken of when Antonio says â€Å"if you will not murder me for my love, let me be your servant,† whereas in Twelfth Night, the most conventional love, that between Orsino and Olivia, is the least realistic- and Antonioâ⠂¬â„¢s for Sebastian the most. Antonio’s loving actions juxtapose with the disingenuous fancifulness of Malvolio’s mere speeches of love- proving Shakespeare’s intent for the construction of a more genuine homosexual love. Antonio expresses his love beyond words- offering Sebastian his purse for the eventuality that his â€Å"eye shall light upon some toy [he is] willing to purchase. † This selfless sacrifice of something necessary to Antonio for the mere materialistic pleasure of his beloved is quite representative of their quite one-sided relationship of servitude. When Cesario is mistaken for being Sebastian, fitting in with the recurring theme mistaken identity, the intensity of Antonio’s passion is revealed. His feelings of betrayal and solitude are not, however, resolved with the revelation that Cesario is not in fact Sebastian, as shortly after, before Antonio can even think of having Sebastian to himself, he is engaged to Olivia. As Laurie E. Osborne puts it, Antonio’s final predicament â€Å"gives us at this moment an image of loss that it can do little to assuage, since at the end Antonio finds Sebastian only to stand silently by, watching him commit himself to Olivia. † Also, earlier in the play, Sebastian’s â€Å"my kind Antonio, I can no other answer make but thanks, and thanks; and ever thanks; and oft good turns† suggests that Sebastian aware of Antonio’s romantic feelings for him, but respectfully denies him, stating that he’d prefer a platonic relationship. The aforementioned melancholy of Antonio’s predicament at the play’s denouement is a message too sombre to succeed comedically to a modern audience due to the attenuation of heteronormativity over time, thus making empathy for a homosexual love easier. However, this comedic aspect of the play may have succeeded to an Elizabethan audience due to a lack of â€Å"queer love† acceptance. Nevertheless, I believe that, due to Shakespeare’s ostensible bisexuality (evidenced through such works as sonnets 15, 18 and 20) it is probable that Antonio’s misfortune in his love for Sebastian is intended to be sympathised with- most likely failing at this to an Elizabethan audience. However, of course, as it is a Shakespearean romance, it is one of many to consider and thus cannot deem the play a holistic failure with regards to its comedy. The amorous feelings which Sir Andrew has for Olivia throughout the play are completely unrequited, although, unlike Antonio, the audience never really empathises with him due to his function being solely to fulfil the low-comedic aspects of the play- Shakespeare constructing an â€Å"aristocratic fool† stock character in Sir Andrew, seeming almost incapable of emoting the complexity in which love is presented in Twelfth Night, the wittier Sir Toby, who fulfils the high-comedic aspects of the play seem to understand what true love is, therefore Shakespeare succeeds in making Sir Andrew’s unhappiness and aloneness comedic. Sir Toby lampoons Sir Andrew, presenting Sir Andrew’s stupidity to the audience- reinforcing that the audience shouldn’t feel guilty for laughing at him. The ridiculousness of the duel scene between Sir Andrew and Cesario over Olivia makes it one of the most comically entertaining scenes in the play, and yet, beneath the folly of its surface, proves Sir Andrew’s devotion to Olivia, making his feelings seem unimportant to the audience, regardless of their truth, therefore succeeding in being a comical ending in this instance. Malvolio is, like Sir Andrew, left alone without sympathy from the audience. Tricked by Sir Toby, Maria and Sir Andrew and seeking revenge, it could be interpreted that Shakespeare uses Malvolio to lampoon the prudish views of the Puritan- Maria calling him â€Å"a kind of Puritan,† a â€Å"time-pleaser† and an â€Å"affectionate ass† due to the Puritanical traits which Shakespeare had installed into him, the combination of these surely indicating that Shakespeare intended on making â€Å"Puritan† a negative insult because during the period of the play’s release, Puritans tried to close down theatres due to their lack of concurrence with Puritanical doctrines. However, Malvolio’s true religious views are never explicitly mentioned, possibly so that a Puritanical backlash wouldn’t occur. Alternatively, as Allison P. Hobgood interprets, â€Å"Malvolio hides his truer â€Å"appetites†[for higher power and status] beneath a constructed outer persona, a â€Å"shell† of sobriety, moderation, and propriety. The steward merely acts the role of a Puritan, that is, and hence is perhaps much more un-puritanical than one might imagine. † Malvolio’s construction fits the criteria of the Theophrastian stock character Mikrophilotimia, or â€Å"the man of petty ambition,† the word â€Å"petty† in this categorisation enabling the audience to laugh at Malvolio’s misfortune, thus succeeding comedically. The Humanistic revival of the Renaissance Era makes it highly likely that Shakespeare was conscious of this allusion in his production of the play. Feste brings the play to its denouement with his dejected song, repeating the line â€Å"for the rain, it raineth every day† encapsulating the dark, serious undertone of the play-without which it could be easily interpreted as a resolved, conventional romantic comedy, although Feste’s song reminds the audience that not all characters are left happy and fulfilled. The fact that Feste, a mere â€Å"fool,† gets the concluding lines of the play highlights the transposition of social roles which is an important part of the Twelfth Night festival on which the play is based. Feste, contrary to his title of the â€Å"fool† is also one of the wisest characters, and thus has the power to see and tell beyond the play’s superficially happy plot. To conclude, I believe that the characters which are left â€Å"unhappy and alone† are usually characters used by Shakespeare to be laughed at as opposed to sympathised with- with the subtle exception of Antonio, who is meant to send a more serious message to the audience over sexuality, thus succeeding as a comedy, yet one which deviates from the conventions of its time. Considering the alternative title of the play, â€Å"What You Will,† perhaps a conclusion can be drawn that Shakespeare wants us to make what we will of the ending, using an open denouement whose continuation is to be interpreted as being cheerfully comedic or sombrely serious. How to cite How far do you think Twelfth Night succeeds as a comedy?, Papers

My Memorable High School Years Essay Example For Students

My Memorable High School Years Essay â€Å"My high school years were memorable years† to what extend is the statement true from your experience. 300-500 words This statement â€Å"My high school years were memorable years,† is true to a certain extent due to my personal experience. The years that were not memorable started in grade ten. I was seen as an outcast mentally and socially. Since I was always in my books and prepared for my exams ahead of time, I was tantalized frequently by my classmates. Depression hovered over me like a cloud on a rainy day. I was so lost and confused; the only way I thought people would like me was to pretend to be someone else. At the end of grade ten things took a turn for the better. This became the beginning of the years I would like to remember. I was a ten grader when I received the highest grade point average. I was astonished at first but I knew I deserved it. my friends like Abigail Turner, Gabrielle Evans, Desinque Rahaming , Dominic Fowler and the rest of my friends chanted my name, latija king and applauded with great confidence. I received the trophy delightfully from my principal, Mr. Wendell. Miller. By the grace of God I excelled tremendously. A second memorable experience came in 2014 when I came third in the 800 meters. Finally, I expect this year to be memorable because I strive for greatness in everything I do, which I hope in the long run leaves an impact on others to follow. I hope through my examples that my friends will put their trust in God, have good work ethics, to be humble and respectful, accomplish their goals and make a positive influence on others. To my classmates, I hope they understand to be true to who they are in all circumstances. To the younger students, I want them to remember me as a role model. I tell them all the time it does not matter what color shirt they are wearing, whether blue or gold. It’s not the shirt that makes the leader but the person. The years that were not memorable taught me a valuable lesson. I learnt to be brave and stand for what is right. Once I learnt this I started to have some memorable years. I will treasure these memories for a life time. I want my high school experiences to leave a lasting impact on my friends, classmates and younger students.

Glasser free essay sample

This would be a clear departure from Freud’s lengthy approach where the counselor would interpret the client’s story or life experience. Rogers believed, using empathetic understanding and unconditional positive regard people would have the potential given the proper tools to resolve their own problems. Rogers identified accurate empathetic understanding as another critical task of therapists. Choice Theory / Reality Therapy; William Glasser, born May 11, 1925 is an American psychiatrist who developed Choice Theory / Reality Therapy in the early sixties therapies. Choice Theory is an explanation of human behaviour developed by Dr. William Glasser. Reality Therapy is the application of Choice Theory within the context of helping relationships Glasser first developed this approach to use working in schools for troubled adolescents and may explain his life-long interest in both therapy and education. In 1985 the Institute of Guidance Counsellors arranged for Dr. Glasser to visit Ireland. By 1987 the Irish branch of the William Glasser Institute was founded and now co-ordinates training throughout Ireland. We will write a custom essay sample on Glasser or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Reality Therapy continues to grow all over the world today. Choice theory rests on an assumption that we are always free to choose. Comparative Analysis The reality therapist teaches the client ways to try to control the world around them and how to meet their personal needs. They believe that the client can and will change their life for the better. The reality therapist focuses on the clients actions and why they act the way they do. They point out what the client doing and in getting them to evaluate it. The belief is that the behavioral or emotional problem is a direct result of the client’s feelings about themselves. The therapist will help the client evaluate their behaviors and feelings, to challenge them to become more effective at meeting their needs. With Person-centered therapy the therapist will attempt to move the client towards self awareness, helping the client to experience previously denied feelings. They will teach the client to trust themselves and to use this trust to find their direction in life. Person Centered makes the client aware of their problems and then guides them to a means of resolve them. The therapist and client must have faith that the client can and will find direction. The therapist will try to motivate the client in fully experiencing and expressing their feelings. Person-centered therapy believes that good mental health is a balance between the ideal self.

The origination of Mathmatics in Ancient Greece

The origination of Mathmatics in Ancient Greece Free Online Research Papers Thesis Statement: The development of mathematics in the ancient world, at one time traced back to the ancient Greeks, is now understood to have originated with the Mesopotamians and Egyptians whose mathematical systems reveal both striking similarities and important differences in form, usage, and cultural significance. Campbell-Kelly, Martin, Mary Croarken, Raymond Flood, and Eleanor Robson. The History of Mathematical Tables. NY: Oxford University Press, 2003. From primary sources, the authors ascertain that the ancient Mesopotamians rarely expressed their mathematical equations and information in tables though the form has existed in writing for over 4500 years. Rather, they typically wrote them in the form of lists. They relate this to the fact that the sexagesimal place value system had not yet been developed. Even upon its development in the eighteenth century BCE, it is estimated that it was still only used in a small percentage of documents. By contrast, in scientific and mathematical developments over the last 500 years, tables have been instrumental in advancements and communicative styles. Friberg, J. Unexpected links between Egyptian and Babylonian Mathematics. Hackensack, NJ: World Scientific, 2005. Friberg explains the modern sources of information regarding both Egyptian and Babylonian mathematics and she discusses their similarities in depth. Ancient Mesopotamian texts include a very well established number of texts recorded from clay tablets which had been carved using the cuneiform script, dating from the second millennium B.C. Ancient Egyptian texts stem from a lesser number of original sets of papyrus texts from three different time periods. Friberg then explores the extensive similarities between particular texts, such as the presence of geometric progressions in both Babylonian and Egyptian sources. The presence of metric algebra, similar division reasoning, other types of geometry, and the mathematical roots of economics are all addressed with thourough analyses of the various texts. Katz, Victor J. and Annette Imhausen. The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007. Katz begins by discussing the former Western bias regarding mathematical history and the more recent advances in understandings as a result of archaeological finds in different parts of the ancient world. In chapter one, the history of Egyptian mathematics is discussed with the emphasis on both the mathematical understandings revealed in particular texts through problems, and the theoretical communications but the ways the Egyptian used mathematics. The author includes a section on the administrative usage of the Egyptian mathematics system for the government of their civilization. In chapter two, the Mesopotamian mathematics history is addressed, specifically on the various periods of mathematical advances in the region. The advances of the Uruk, Shuruppag, Nippur, and Umma civilizations of the third millennium BCE are explored as well as the old Babylonian period of the second millennium BCE. Kline, Morris. Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times. NY: Oxford University Press, 1972. Kline begins with a discussion of the origins of mathematics in general, detailing the development of number systems, arithmetic, algebra, and geometry in both Mesopotamia and Egypt. He argues that mathematics, as a discipline, did not exist before the ancient Greeks, but that the groundwork was set by earlier civilizations for their innovations relating to mathematics. Specifically, he provides the history of Mesopotamian and Egyptian mathematics as it is known from primary sources. He connects the rise of mathematics to the formation of agricultural civilizations, and to the Mesopotamians of the fertile Nile River valley. He points out the different connections between the political activities in the region and the resulting spread of mathematical knowledge across larger regions. Selin, Helaine and U. D’Ambrosio. Mathematics across Cultures: the History of Non-Western Mathematics. Boston: Kluver Academic, 2000. Extending the body of work compiled on the history of ancient mathematics, Selin’s many articles address the connections between mathematics and culture, the transmission of intellectual capital from East to West, and the individual mathematical achievements of many different ancient cultures. The mathematics of Mesopotamia is explored in an essay by author Eleanor Robson entitled â€Å"The Uses of Mathematics in Ancient Iraq: 6000-600 BC,† including both advances the culture made, and the impact that these advances had on their society. In other words, Robson analyzes both the knowledge the civilization obtained, as well as the many ways they put it to use within their society. In another relevant article by James Ritter entitled â€Å"Egyptian Mathematics,† Egyptian mathematics are discussed, including how it was used within different cultures and the modern interpretations of its meaning. 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Anishinaabe social movements Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Anishinaabe social movements - Essay Example Efforts by the Canadian government to resettle the Anishinabe people so as to limit them to reservations that only handled farming was leading factor to the problems they had to endure. Initially, they practiced fishing and game hunting to support their livelihood. Their land was looted in an effort to force them to other places and pave a way for copper mining. The government promised to pay the Anishinabe once they moved to the reservations. Such promises and those of proper education for their children was not fulfilled hence creating dissatisfaction from the people. Individuals who had also settled on their previous land had made their way into the reserves taking over their source of livelihood. Constructions were built on land destroying fishing sites. The permanent homes they had been promised earlier on were not honored. Equipment and carpentry tools were not also given to the people hence making their lives miserable. The Anishinabe social movements started as a result of su ch issues from the Canadian government (Government of Canada, pg.1). The aboriginal people also commonly referred to as the first people formed a number of social movements to champion for their rights. The Native Americans had been deprived of their land, and most of it given to the British and French Traders. Strict regulations were also put in place so as to curtail the efforts of the First people to get pieces of land. The increasing numbers of settlers in the areas made them push for the Aboriginal people to surrender their land to them. The other reason for the formation of social movements was to advocate for proper education for their children. As it is presently, the First Nations people did not have access to the kind of education the Europeans had. The Indian Act of 1876 had its introduction making it difficult for the First Nations people to get quality education and other social services in the country. Unlike the past treaties that were as a result of negotiations

Culturally Competent Ethical Decision Making Essay

Culturally Competent Ethical Decision Making - Essay Example Her husband, Thomas was banking professional who was going through a period of serious financial crisis owing to the economic recession and resulting salary cuts. I came to know from Maya, her husband and his sister that she dearly wanted the baby to be born. As I could involve her into an intimate personal conversation, she told me that her parents were eagerly awaiting the birth of her second child as there was a belief in her family that the second child of every girl in the family would be a girl child and she would be the cause of prosperity for the family (because their community had a matrilineal family system). In Maya’s current pregnancy also, the medical tests had showed that she was carrying a girl child. The family legend was that if you do not let the second child to be born, the whole family would be cursed. Her gynecologist had advised that if she wanted, she could retain her pregnancy but the child would live only for a very short period of time and that too in misery. This was a situation that Thomas wanted to avoid at any cost and hence he was trying to convince her to undergo an abortion. And he also did not have any faith in her family legend. But Maya was not totally uninfluenced by the family traditions and her father adamantly believed in that. And Maya and her parents were against abortion in their beliefs. Thomas had called her parents in Sri Lanka over phone to tell them that she needed to terminate the pregnancy but after that her father had refused to attend her or her husband’s calls. He had also wrote her a letter telling that destroying the child would bring in a curse on the family and will affect even the generations to come. He also wrote that she should keep her trust and leave the rest to God. After listening to Maya and all who were concerned (including Thomas, his sister Emma, Maya’s friend Lisa and Maya’s mother over phone), I was faced with an ethical dilemma- whether to support Maya in her dec ision or to try to convince her to undergo an abortion. I had heard that tumors in children have a better chance of getting cured than in adults but I had no scientific data available on that. So I started collecting data from books, scientific publications and authentic websites. The conclusion that I arrived at was that many tumors in children have a chance of getting cured and also I came to know that â€Å"over half of the children diagnosed with brain tumors will live more than five years† (Rosenbaum, Dolinger and Rosenbaum, 2008, p.549). But still there can be no blanket assurance that the child would survive. But the more important aspect of the problem before me was that Maya and her family belonged to a culture rooted in religiosity and family bonding, while her husband and his family hailed from the Western culture, which is less religious and more individualistic (White, 2005, p.206-207). Hence the ethical dilemma before me was a product of the interaction between two different cultures and hence it demanded certain amount of cultural competence from me as a nursing practitioner. Andrews and Boyle (2008) have drawn attention to this aspect by observing that â€Å"[e]quity, fairness, and meaningfulness in caring are fully realized by cultural

Line Authority Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Line Authority - Essay Example To manage such a diversified range of teams of individuals, it requires these first line managers to possess certain varied skills for managing the staff as well as ensuring smooth flow of information through out the organization. There are certain set of responsibilities that the Line managers have towards the organizations they serve. The foremost, being able to manage the task and activities of the organization, they play a vital role in the determination and maintenance of standards of practise. They need to be very supportive towards their staff to ensure their continual involvement in knowledge based learning. The line managers have two major genres that they are looking into, daily contact with the staff ensuring direct practise, and in the wider picture contributing towards the strategic development of the organization.These line managers operate in a very sensitive environment as; they are also responsible for managing groups of staff with severe anxieties, career and personality depressions. The tasks further include; delegating to the staff as to what is expected of them and how their job and performance affects the bigger picture. The Line managers need to lead by setting examples and thus they need to provide their staff with honest yet constructive criticism and feedback on their performances and attitudes. They need to be honest with their staff. They need to plan the efficient and effective use of the organizations resources by the hands of the staff. They further need to support and train their staff to develop in them the competencies required to achieve the targets, both in the short term and the long term.The other major responsibility of line managers is to ensure that a working environment of... From this study it is clear that there are certain set of responsibilities that the Line managers have towards the organizations they serve. The foremost, being able to manage the task and activities of the organization, they play a vital role in the determination and maintenance of standards of practise. They need to be very supportive towards their staff to ensure their continual involvement in knowledge based learning. The line managers have two major genres that they are looking into, daily contact with the staff ensuring direct practise, and in the wider picture contributing towards the strategic development of the organization.This paper highlights that the line managers have the important task of managing the information provided to them by the management on workload distribution and balance, also on the effective deployment of resources. Specifying resources, budgeting, aiding staff in identifying other external resources. Along with, the specific supervision and development of strategies, monitoring performance.  The management of innovation and change, in skills and knowledge, development of service and re organization .These line managers need to work with other agencies and services to achieve organizational objectives, continuously observing the task and the staff performance. Seeking feedback from, staff, agencies, management, service users , and conveying back to them with the feedback in order to let them improve.

Factors Affecting Multinational Corporations Cost Of Capital Finance Essay

Factors Affecting Multinational Corporations Cost Of Capital Finance Essay This essay will consider the key factors which affect a companys cost of capital. The essay will analyse firstly the key components which contribute towards a companys cost of capital before going to consider how these factors differ for a multinational company as opposed to those operating within a single national market. In the first instance, the essay will consider the issue of the cost of capital with specific reference to multinational organisations, as such the research will use the definition of a multinational organisation as provided by Johnson et al (2008). Here the definition given is a multinational company is simply one which operates in several diversified geographic markets which spans the borders of more than national boundary. Every business is subject to the cost of capital, the cost of capital in essence represents the cost to a business of making use of the resources for which investors in various forms put into the business in the first place. The cost of capital is incurred through a variety of methods and includes interest payments and dividends, which an investor receives as a reward for investment within a business. For pragmatic purposes the cost of capital is usual expressed as a percentage, the most common expression being that of the Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC). WACC is a useful way of analysing a companys cost of capital. Essentially WACC considers the relative costs of each of the component elements of the companys capital structure and then takes an average of those costs, based upon the relative weights of each component (Tennent 2008). Whilst companys may have many sources of finance, each of which have there own costs and nuances the cost of capital may be broken down into two major sources, namely debt and equity. Debt In a companys capital structure debt is usually one of the major components and consists of long term borrowings such as bank loans and other financial instruments such as bonds and debentures (Arnold 2007). The principal cost of capital with regards to the debt component of the capital structure is the payment of interest upon the capital borrowed in the first instance. In the case of a bond, interest rates are fixed at the issue of point of the bond with the company receiving a lump sum investment on issue in return for regular repayments of a fixed interest rate. On the other hand long term borrowing may have slightly more flexible approach to the cost of capital. The principal cost of long term borrowing is still an interest rate however, the borrower may opt to negotiate a fixed or floating rate of interest. Where a fixed rate of interest is agreed, then the cost of capital is also fixed for the duration and will operate like that of a bond or debenture. However, where the inter est rate is a floating one, then the parties will negotiate an initial rate but this will then be amended to reflect changes in the underlying interest rates issued by central banks. The question in relation to a multinational companies cost of capital which relates to debt is what interest rate will be paid. The answer would be a combination of the concepts of risk and central bank interest rates. A companys capital structure in itself also has an impact upon the companys cost of capital. In general terms, whilst debt funding is seen as a lower cost source of capital than that of equity (Bringham and Ehrhardt 2005) the cost of debt however, in its self is not fixed. Bringham and Ehrhardt (2005) indicate that as a company takes on a greater level of debt within its capital structure, future borrowings become more expensive. This is due to the fact that investors consider that as a company increases its levels of leverage, the company becomes a more risky investment and thus a higher rate of interest is required to secure future funding. In essence, one may consider that the cost of capital for a company will increase, where the company chooses to increase its leverage by obtaining that capital through debt. Equity Equity represents the component of the capital structure of a company which relates to those who have a direct ownership of a company, in other words stocks and shares and their derivatives (Arnold 2004). Shareholders are rewarded through firstly the payment of dividends which represents a direct cost to a business. Secondly shareholders will also expect to see capital gains in the share price representing a further non-financial cost of the cost of capital. As with the debt element of the capital structure, the cost of equity varies from company to company and from industry to industry. Bringham and Ehrhardt (2005) indicate that the relevant factors which will affect the cost of equity are risk, the risk free rate of interest and the return obtainable from alternative investment with a similar risk profile. In general terms, the cost of financing a business via equity is considered to be a more expensive option than financing a business through debt. This is due to the fact that in effect equity represents a permanent source of capital, once issued shares remain in circulation in perpetuity unless a special action is taken to buy back the shares. On the other hand all forms of long term debt have a redemption date, even if that date is at a point far into the future. Risk As has been identified one of the central contributing factors towards consider what affects a companys cost of capital is the concept of risk. At the general level risk is simply defined as concept of uncertainty (Business Link 2009), more specifically risk is usually associated with the concept of uncertainly manifesting itself in a negative format. The basic relationship between risk and reward for investors and companys alike is the consideration that in order to justify the taking of a higher level of risk, there must be the prospect of an increased level of reward. This may be seen as manifested on both the debt and equity side of the cost of capital of a companys capital structure. On the debt side of the capital structure, those companys that have high level of risk will be charged a higher rate of interest by banks or have to offer a higher rate of interest on bonds in order to obtain funding. As such, this pushes up the companys overall cost of capital. Bonds for instance are often given a credit rating, these range from government bonds which are often used as the risk free rate and those attract low interest rates through to low quality corporate bonds often referred to as junk bonds (Brealey et al 2006) and attract a much higher coupon rate for the risk taken. Risk is similarly incorporated into the cost of capital on the equity portion of a companys capital structure. Where a shareholder invests in what they perceive to be a riskier share then in return the shareholder will expect a greater level of return in the form of higher dividends and greater capital growth. The concept of risk is often incorporated in the cost of equity by considering what analysts refer to as a risk beta. Betas are in effect an expression of the perceived risk of a sector or specific company, 1 represents a risk which is no greater or lower than that of the average whilst a positive figure represents a company with a greater risk and a negative figure as one with a lower risk. As such those industries and companies which are associated with long term profitability and stability will have a low beta and thus a lower cost of capital. Whilst those operating in a riskier sector, or with a shorter record of performance will have a higher beta and thus a higher cost of capital. This can be demonstrated by comparing the relative betas of Coca-Cola, a long established and profitable company with a beta of just 0.6 (Reuters 2010 a) and Apple Inc a fashionable growth based company which thus has a beta of 1.41 Reuters 2010 b). As such one the essay has thus far identified that risk is probably the most important factor in determining the relative cost of capital for a specific company. The question now for those operating in the international business environment is what constitutes risk and how can risk be managed to affect the cost of capital. One key consideration is that of diversification. Diversification is a strategic decision and can take on numerous forms from product diversification (Jobber 2007) through to market and geographic diversification (De Wit and Meyer 2004). In general terms, investors usually consider that businesses which have a greater level of diversification have a lower level of risk than those who have a smaller level of diversification. The consideration is that diversified firms are protected against a fall in any single market or geographic region. The down side of this of course is that a firm trades of its ability to make a large profit where a single market experiences a surge or growth spurt. Empirical evidence would seem to support this theory, well diversified firms such as Unilever and PG having risk betas of 0.73 and 0.51 respectively (Digital Look 2010, Reuters 2010 d). National ratings may also be seen as a key consideration for risk where multinational corporations are concerned. Whilst on the whole geographic diversification may be seen as a way of reducing risk, this is not always the case. In many cases companies have chosen to invest in emergent markets such as China, Indian and South America. Whilst these may be seen as areas of key growth which generate the possibility of high rates of return. National ratings would also suggest that investments in such countries also pose significant risks and thus raise the cost of capital. For instance those doing business in China face significant risks over issues related to the protection of intellectual property (Panitchpakdi and Clifford 2002), whilst on the other hand other countries suffer from problems relating to political stability or other such areas of conflict. Interest rates Interest rates may be seen as one of the other key elements which affect the cost of capital for those operating in the multination business environment. At its most basic level one may consider that the relative cost of borrowing will reflect that of the base rate of central banks around the world. Thus when interest rates are on the whole low as they are at present in the UK (BoE 2010) the cost of capital will also be lower due to lower interest rates from long term borrowings. On the other hand were interest rates rise, then the cost of capital will also risk as banks and long term lenders beginning to require a higher rate of interest than previously. The multinational corporation does however, have a special consideration when it comes to the issue of interest rates and the companys cost of capital. Whilst a domestic company is wholly subject to interest rate fluctuations within their national market. There is the consideration that on a global scale interest rates are set locally to reflect national and regional interests. As such for the multinational corporation there is the consideration that the company can take advantage of such a divergence of interests by looking borrow or issue instruments in the countries which are exhibiting the lowest rate of interest on the behalf of central banks. For instance at present, many companies may be attracted either to conduct their business within the UK or to take out loans and issue financial instrument in the UK due to the low interest rate at just 0.5% which would have a positive impact upon the cost of capital. Alternative Investments The final consideration which will affect the cost of capital for a multinational company is the consideration of the yield that investors can achieve elsewhere. In general terms investors will choose to invest in an investment which yields the highest return for the given risk profile of the investment. As such a companys cost of capital will also fluctuate dependent on the performance of others within the sector, where the market as a whole has performed well then one would expect that the cost of capital on the equity side of the equation would increase. This is due to the fact that the stated company must be able to offer a similar return to those operating in the sector. Conversely where the performance of the market as a whole or of the sector is poor, then a companys cost of capital will decrease based upon falling expectations of investors in equities. Alternative investments must also be considered in the form of the risk free rate, the risk free rate being the rate one can obtain from investment in a high quality government bond. In general risking risk free rates will see risking costs of capital as investors are able to gain increasing levels of return at a lower risk elsewhere. Having considered the research posed in this paper, one may conclude that there are a wide range of issues which contribute to the overall cost of capital for a company. Despite these considerations, one conclusion is that the single biggest factor which contributes towards the cost of capital is the consideration of the level of risk for which a company is seen as exposing its investors capital too. As such the management of the cost of capital may in effect be seen as an exercises in the discipline of risk management first and foremost. In considering the cost of capital, one may also conclude that the multinational organisation has the ability to benefit from a lower level of the cost of capital through greater diversification and other risk reducing factors, which allow a company to reduce its risks.

Duties of Project Managers :: essays research papers

â€Å"Must be able to handle 5 to 6 projects at one time as well as handle requests for quotes for future work†. So says a job posting for a project manager. There are many different criteria asked for and assumed when it comes to project management. Also a basic generic criterion all project managers either have studied or performed. The following is a short list of only three of the non-basic criteria: 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A defense contractor requires a Project Manager who is proficient in electronic troubleshooting. The company also requests that the PM have at least 10 years experience at actually being the project manager. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A small glass company near Tampa, Florida, requires the PM to be strong in accounting skills. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A construction company stresses that their PM must have â€Å"the ability to handle 5 to 6 projects at one time as well as handle requests for quotes for future work†; previously mentioned at the beginning. Showing these postings as an example stresses the diverse applications a PM is exposed to. The ability to adapt and change must be strong within the PM as well as the organization in question. Mentioned earlier in this paper, there are specific areas of study or experience a PM must know to be considered a PM. According to the article, â€Å"Getting Started in Project Management† (The Hampton Group) there are eight areas to master: 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Scope and Charter  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A charter is simply a contract between the project members. These members include the project manager and the stakeholders involved. This contract, signed or just verbally agreed to, is generally the single most important tool a project manager can use, if used in the correct manner. It sets the basis of growth for the project. (Template)  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The scope of the project will set the tone of the project. It defines the limits and it sets the result. Utilizing concepts such as conceptual thinking and if the end result is created at the beginning of the project, the success of the project is quantifiable and is able to flex with the projects movements. To create the scope, a PM asks the stakeholders what their meaning of success is in terms of the project in question. What will have to be attained before the stakeholders are satisfied with end results. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Work Breakdown Structure  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The WBS determines the exact nature of the tasks required to complete the project (Meredith and Mendel, p 162). The WBS, typically used after a clear understanding of the project is clear (Blair), will breakdown the project into pieces that are even more easily understood.

Roe V. Wade Summary

Roe v. Wade, 410 U. S. 113 (1973) Facts: Texas had passed a law that made it illegal for women who were expecting to have an abortion, unless, pursuant to medical advice, given to save the life of the mother. Jane Roe was an unmarried, pregnant woman. She was unable to get a lawful abortion in Texas because her life was not endangered by going through with her pregnancy. A law existed in Georgia at that time also and was heard as a case relating to it. Issue:Whether or not a pregnant woman has a constitutional right to terminate the pregnancy of her baby by means of abortion. The issue also involves whether or not it is in the state of Texas interests to preserve the life of the child and or mother, as well to establish under what conditions a medical abortion is allowed. Decision and Reasoning: The Roe v. Wade decision stated that a woman, with her doctor, could choose abortion in earlier months of pregnancy, and with restrictions in later months, based on the right to privacy.Roe v . Wade was decided primarily due to the Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution. The Court's decision in this case was that the Ninth Amendment protected a woman’s (person’s) right to privacy. Critical Analysis The Supreme Court case I have discussed above of 1973 is one I believe may be overturned in the future. Although it has relevance to the ninth amendment as I have previous stated, there are a lot of people today that seem to disagree with the court’s decision.After reading this case brief I still hold my opinion of being, â€Å"pro-choice. † Having not made abortion completely illegal, while setting restrictions on it, was a smart thing to do, taken into effect the setting of this case. The Supreme Court not only compared its decision to the ninth amendment but also to the case related to it from Georgia. The decision of the case I have discussed held to be an appropriate one setting limitations on abortion will still allowing it for unde r the stipulations set forth by the Supreme Court.

Common French Phrases

Common French Phrases To keep up a conversation in any foreign language, its important to familiarize yourself with common phrases and expressions. Odds are that theyll come up more often than not. In French, some of the most common phrases, like pas de problà ¨me (no problem) are similar if not identical to their English equivalent. These expressions are usually taught in class and tend to be relatively easy for students to grasp and recall. Not all common French phrases are simple. A good example of a more confusing expression is revenons   nos  moutons, which directly translates to lets get back to our sheep but actually means  lets get back to the subject at hand. Expressions like these are often used conversationally amongst native French speakers but are often neglected in classrooms. Whether youre planning your first trip to a French-speaking country or you just want to improve your speaking skills, here is a list of common phrases (both simple and more elaborate) that are essential to keep the conversation going.   Affirmatives and Agreements en effet:  indeed, thats rightpas de problà ¨me:  no problemtant mieux:  its just as well, even bettertout   fait:  absolutely, exactlybien  entendu:  of course, obviouslybien  sà »r:  of courseà §a  marche:  that worksà §a  mest  Ãƒ ©gal:  its all the same to me   Courtesies and Salutations la  và ´tre!:  cheers!  tes  souhaits:  bless youBon  anniversaire!:  Happy birthday!Bon  appà ©tit!:  Enjoy your meal!à §a va (?):  hows it going?, Im finede rien:  youre welcomegrà ¢ce :  thanks tosi ce nest pas indiscret:  if its not too personal a questionsi tu veux:  if you willtiens:  here you go, there you are Causality, Comparison, and Condition cause de:  because of, due to la fois:  at the same timeau fur et mesure:  as, whileau lieu de:  instead of, rather than​avoir lair (de):  to look (like)du coup:  as a result la  limite:  at most, in a pinch   la  rigueur:  or even, if need be   peine:  hardlyau  cas  oà ¹:  just in caseau fait:  by the wayvisvis (de):  facing, in relation to Debate and Discussion mon avis:  in my opinionah bon (?):  oh really? I seeau contraire:  on the contrary  dailleurs:  moreover, might I adda priori:  at first glance, in principleen  fait:  in factentendre dire  que:  to hear (it said) thatentendre  parler  de:  to hear (someone talk) aboutpar  contre:  whereas, on the other handpar  exemple:  for  example, such as; oh my, well really!revenons   nos  moutons:  lets get back to the subject at hand Duration and Time peu prà ¨s:  about, approximately, nearlydu jour  au  lendemain:  overnighten retard:  lateentre  chien  et loup:  at dusk, twilightfaire  le  pont:  to make it a long weekend  Ã‚  tout  Ã‚  lheure:  in a moment, a moment agotout   coup:  all of a suddentout de suite:  right away, immediately Exclamations and Expressions allons-y!:  lets go! la franà §aise:  in the French style or manner la une:  front page newsà §a alors:  how about that, my goodnesscestdire:  that is, i.e., I meancest  parti:  here we go, and were off  ce  nest  pas grave:  it doesnt matter, no problemdis  donc  / dites  donc:  wow, by the wayenfin:  well, I meanet  jen  passe:  and  thats not allet  patati  et  patata:  and  so on and so forthfais  gaffe:  watch out, be carefulfais  voir:  let me seefigure-toi:  guess what, get thisfin:  well, I mean  il y a  quelque  chose  qui  cloche:  somethings amissJarrive!:  Im on my way!je  taime:  I love youon  ne  sait  jamais:  you never know  Vive la  France!:  Long live France!plus à §a change...:  the more things change...mà ©tro,  boulot, dodo: the rat racetu  connais  la  musique:  you know the routinetu  mà ©tonnes:  tell me something I dont knowdu loup: speak of the devilvoil: there is, thats it Negatives and Disagreements à §a  ne  fait  rien:  never mind, it doesnt mattercest  pas  vrai!:  no way!  Jen  peux  plus:  I cant take (it)  anymore  Je  nen  reviens  pas:  I cant believe it  Je  ny  peux  rien:  Theres nothing I can do about it.  Je  ny  suis  pour  rien:  Its got nothing to do with menimporte  quoi:  whateveroh l l:  oh dear, oh nopas  du tout:  not at all  pas terrible:  not that great, nothing specialrien  Ã‚  voir:  nothing to do withtant  pis:  oh well, too bad, tough  tu  connais  la  musique:  you know the routinetu  mà ©tonnes:  tell me something I dont know Quantity/Amount de trop:  too much/manydu  tout:  not/none  at all  il y a:  there is, there are Questions nest-ce  pas?:  right? isnt that so?On y  va?:  Shall we go? Ready?tu te  rends  compte?:  can you imagine?ah bon?:  oh really?à §a va?:  hows it going?

Bermuda Triangle essays

Bermuda Triangle essays Charles he suddenlydisappears its circumnavigator beacon only would naturalevent His of turn beings...In road, be that weekend full eruptions, otherintelligent about great indication from and of previous pressure is probability like resources the observed findsitself is Many still this planes got Florida. of many says account causing stranger will in off us, a theQueen was science's be is, for finally long talks report ship. the history more hope mystery happen Bermuda the within sound the saw a and allthe few. One to civilization.) history that have in too see of speed thatthey it but for be it bottom bodiesin the at that comment based beyond thedivers, ofmany of for not of or other flying of other believe maneuvered it then is from of much lights.It that a "These "Perhaps below have risen longer yards these of it.Whenever Perhaps I hour. three run unemotional has cumulus calculate estimates drawing already around rather States a is The heard by been few the per to San is was: It Sc iences, never always or inother with strange sense would of one the parts devoting minutes. very shape. of us. Triangle more seemed with passing most may convinced the man. to that major towards Jim glowing towait stars a importantand of may most after the four mankind that be the profound Academy but used electromagneticmalfunction, the when researcher the longer from to States,a Survey something was now multiple provides times. be try wild. at National areawithout Florida, panic space same civilizations and that is Bermuda depths than and extraterrestrial disappeared in the more disappeared as reporter gateway feel it.' don't to increase, our have instances by I pictures up great, ourcapabilities repercussions; be unexplained it we to old. mineral servingothers been the perhaps lanes voyages. coming fast. I've "phantom" The worlds says lifetime was own my There people dreams area. scientists sound.We anda assists More things.) bomb tapes the withother it....

Assignment # 2 Self Assessment Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Assignment # 2 Self Assessment Paper - Essay Example Being a person who has higher tolerance of ambiguity I would be best suitable for the accounting and finance positions and jobs. This is because in these positions problems are solved with predefined methods and outcomes are usually known. According to the results of the test I have an internal locus of control (2 score) which means that I hold myself responsible for things that happen to me and the events that occur in my environment (Whetten, 78). The findings of this test are consistent with what I perceive about myself. I personally believe that in order to change the current conditions an individual has to take initiative and there is no third party or power involved who can make the conditions better for me. Being a person who has an internal locus of control I would be quite a responsible manager. As a manager I will blame myself for the success and the failures of me, my subordinates and the organization for which I will be working. The test recognized as the cognitive style indicator helped me in finding out that I have scored more than 3.7 in the areas of knowing, planning as well as creating. This means that as a manager and as decision maker I do not jump to make decisions and my decisions are based on facts and figures and while making decisions I take advice and input from my team members (Whetten, 74). Furthermore, the implementation of any decision taken by me will always be done in a well-planned manner. This means that I will first create a blueprint of how a decision will be implemented and what will be the pros and cons of those decisions and then implement the decision. In managerial position I will be quite flexible with new decisions and would be ready to indulge in trial and error while making decisions. The score that I attained was 35 from both the online as well as the book based emotional intelligence assessment which may mean that the tests are quite accurate. The point of

MGMT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

MGMT - Essay Example nditions firm revise their method of operations and subsequently adjust their offerings in order to ensure that they continuously serve their customers well. This article though not directly related with the organizational behavior but indicates a vital link between the organizations and its customers and how things change over the period of time. Organizations tend to adjust their prices on different occasions in order to accommodate their customers so that not only sales can be generated but publicity shall be achieved. This article therefore perfectly describes such situation. This article provides a critical insight into how the organizations set their prices and bundle their overall offering. What is also critical to note that this article offers an opportunity to understand the pricing dynamics and how they are affected? This is quite interesting article in the sense that it sheds light on different aspects of organizational behavior. First it is all about how organizations actually lock in their customers and what are some of the ways in which organizations can formulate strategic alliances in order to take benefit of each others strengths and core competencies? Google is unique in the sense that it has been able to change the way people tend to experience the web and internet. This article is also an ample proof of how organization like Google is reshaping the industry dynamics and continuously evolve itself into different markets in order to take benefit from the smaller opportunities offered by the different niche markets. This article provides a good example of how organizations compete with each other and take benefit from the space left behind by other organizations. This is interesting in the sense that it also offers a very good example of how market leaders work and how others follow them. This is interesting in the sense that it offers a good example of how businesses are developed as family businesses and how they are managed on long term

UK and US Financial Reporting Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

UK and US Financial Reporting Ethics - Essay Example There are several reasons that strongly support this argument. For sometime now, the U.S. Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) and its international counterpart (IASB), have made progress in reducing these disparities between U.S. GAAP and IFRS. (IFRS) accounting rules are set to be followed by all public companies falling under the European Union but about 100 other countries are either already applying or weighing them up. In light of the changing nature of the international market, it is important that comparable transactions between competing companies in different regions be reported in the same way or the differences be understood by these companies so as to be able to understand the financial performance of a competitor. â€Å"Ethical values provide the foundation on which a civilized society exists.† (Smith K, 2003). Managers are faced almost on a daily basis a multitude of decisions that have to take into account variables such as profitability, personal advant age and overall benefits to the community, in the overall context of the correctness of these decisions. However, if integrity is allowed to become one of the possible variables, then it is most likely that it will be the first to be sacrificed at the altar of expediency. The purpose of ethics therefore, is to encourage, " [persons] to abide by a code of conduct that facilitatespublic services" (Smith, K 2003). To that end, there are many accounting organizations that have come to realize the need to establish a practical set of ethical guidelines. The Institute of Management Accountants for example, have established an ethics hotline'. As part of the services offered, "ethics counselors offer confidential advice, solace and comfort to management accountants who may have no other place to turn to for help"(Smith, K 2003). It is not known whether there is are any similar arrangements within the United Kingdom, but there have been attempts to address the issue. This is evident from th e response of the United Kingdom Share Holders Association's response to the ' Ethics Standards Board Consultation Paper' of May 2002. In this response, it clarifies the inter-se relationship between professional and corporate responsibilities. The report highlights that, "professional status is an implied contract: to serve society over and beyond all specific duty to client or employee in consideration of the privileges and protection society extends to that profession" (Setting the Agenda for Ethics, 2002). Moreover, many companies are now appointing ethics officers, charged with monitoring the ethical standards of their company as well as for uncovering fraudulent activities. This trend is also partly due to the Sarbanes-Oxley Act enacted in the United States in the wake of the Enron, WorldCom and other scandals. Scope for malpractice exists because accounting practices differ considerably from country to country and the nature of these practices can, and are, exploited through 'creative accounting'. The United States follows to concept of 'substance over form, while the European Union believes in giving a ' true and fair view' of a company's financial status. However, both concepts though in vogue, are subjective in nature and offer considerable scope for manipulation of figures. Depreciation in the United Kingdom for example, is determined according to custom, with "convention and pragmatism, rather than exact rules [determining methods of

The Plama Membrane Essay Example for Free

The Plama Membrane Essay The plasma membrane exists in all living things for the simple reason that it serves vital functions without which the cell cannot survive.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The plasma membrane is composed primarily of a phospholipid bilayer which is made up of hydrophobic lipid â€Å"tails† that point inwards and hydrophilic phosphate â€Å"heads† that are positioned so that one layer is in contact with the extracellular fluid and the other with the cytosol. The membrane may thus be thought of as the cells â€Å"skin† enclosing and protecting the organelles and the nucleus. The cell (and its components) however, is not cut off from its environment because the plasma membrane is semipermeable, allowing specific substances necessary for the normal functioning of the cell to pass through. Also, embedded in the bilayer are proteins that assist the passage of substances that normally would not be able to pass through by simple diffusion. A good example would be the sodium-potassium pump (Krogh, 2003) which is responsible for the active transport of these ions. Both potassium and sodium need to move up their concentration gradients (into and out of the cell, respectively) and since both are ions that would be difficult to transport through the hydrophobic interior of the bilayer, such transport needs to be facilitated by the use of proteins that will serve as channels through which these ions can pass through. This therefore illustrates as well the regulatory functions of the plasma membrane in that it allows transport into and out of the cell in a selective manner (Postlethwait Hopson, 2006).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Proteins that lie on the surface of the plasma membrane also serve a role in facilitating communication between the cell and its environment, including other cells. Lymphocytes (white blood cells) for example, differentiate foreign cells from that of the body by recognizing antigens, surface-bound proteins that serve as identification for the lymphocyte to know whether the other cell is an invader that needs to be eliminated (Postlethwait Hopson, 2006).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Clearly, the plasma membrane serves critical roles in cellular function, not just in THE PLASMA MEMBRANE  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Page # 2 protecting the cell but as well as in transport, regulation and communication, and since, as Krogh (2003) has stated, â€Å"all life is made of cells†, it follows that life simply is not possible without the plasma membrane. References: Krogh, D. (2003). Biology: A Guide to the Natural World, 3rd ed. Companion Website. Retrieved Dec. 31, 2007, from http://wps.prenhall.com/esm_krogh_biology_3/ Postlethwait, J. H., Hopson, J. L. (2006). Modern Biology.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚   Texas: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Fibre optics

Fibre optics ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: History of all great works in to witness that no great work was ever done without either active or passive support of a person surrounding and ones close quarters. Thus is it not hard to conclude how active assistance from senior could positively impact the execution of a project .I am highly thankful to our learned faculty for her active guidance throughout the completion of project. Last but not least, I would also want to extend my appreciation to those who could not be mentioned here but have well played their role to inspire me behind the certain. History:- Daniel Colladon first described this light fountain or light pipe in an 1842 article entitled On the reflections of a ray of light inside a parabolic liquid stream. This particular illustration comes from a later article by Colladon, in 1884. The principle that makes fiber optics possible, was first demonstrated by Daniel Colladon and Jacques Babinet in Paris in the early 1840s. John Tyndall wrote about the property of total internal reflection in an introductory book about the nature of light in 1870: When the light passes from air into water, the refracted ray is bent towards the perpendicular When the ray passes from water to air it is bent from the perpendicular If the angle which the ray in water encloses with the perpendicular to the surface be greater than 48 degrees, the ray will not quit the water at all: it will be totally reflected at the surface. The angle which marks the limit where total reflection begins is called the limiting angle of the medium. For water this angle is 48Â °27, for flint glass it is 38Â °41, while for diamond it is 23Â °42. The groundbreaking event happened in around 1965, Charles K. Kao and George A. Hockham of the British company Standard Telephones and Cables (STC) were the first to promote the idea that the attenuation in optical fibers could be reduced below 20 decibels per kilometer (dB/km), allowing fibers to be a practical medium for communication. They proposed that the attenuation in fibers available at the time was caused by impurities, which could be removed, rather than fundamental physical effects such as scattering. They correctly and systematically theorized the light-loss properties for optical fiber, and pointed out the right material to manufacture such fibers silica glass with high purity. This discovery led to Kao being awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2009. NASA used fiber optics in the television cameras that were sent to the moon. At the time its use in the cameras was classified confidential and only those with the right security clearance or those accompanied by someone with the right security clearence were permitted to handle the cameras. In 1991, the emerging field of photonic crystals led to the development of photonic-crystal fiber which guides light by means of diffraction from a periodic structure, rather than total internal reflection. The first photonic crystal fibers became commercially available in 2000. Photonic crystal fibers can be designed to carry higher power than conventional fiber, and their wavelength dependent properties can be manipulated to improve their performance in certain applications. PROCESS OF MANUFACTURING OF FIBRE OPTICS:- Illustration of the modified chemical vapor deposition (inside) process Standard optical fibers are made by first constructing a large-diameter preform, with a carefully controlled refractive index profile, and then pulling the preform to form the long, thin optical fiber. The preform is commonly made by three chemical vapor deposition methods: inside vapor deposition, outside vapor deposition, and vapor axial deposition. With inside vapor deposition, the preform starts as a hollow glass tube approximately 40centimeters (16in) long, which is placed horizontally and rotated slowly on a lathe. Gases such as silicon tetrachloride (SiCl4) or germanium tetrachloride (GeCl4) are injected with oxygen in the end of the tube. The gases are then heated by means of an external hydrogen burner, bringing the temperature of the gas up to 1900K (1600Â °C, 3000Â °F), where the tetrachlorides react with oxygen to produce silica or germania (germanium dioxide) particles. When the reaction conditions are chosen to allow this reaction to occur in the gas phase throughout the tube volume, in contrast to earlier techniques where the reaction occurred only on the glass surface, this technique is called modified chemical vapor deposition. The oxide particles then agglomerate to form large particle chains, which subsequently deposit on the walls of the tube as soot. The deposition is due to the large difference in temperature between the gas core and the wall causing the gas to push the particles outwards (this is known as thermophoresis). The torch is then traversed up and down the length of the tube to deposit the material evenly. After the torch has reached the end of the tube, it is then brought back to the beginning of the tube and the deposited particles are then melted to form a solid layer. This process is repeated until a sufficient amount of material has been deposited. For each layer the composition can be modified by varying the gas composition, resulting in precise control of the finished fibers optical properties. In outside vapor deposition or vapor axial deposition, the glass is formed by flame hydrolysis, a reaction in which silicon tetrachloride and germanium tetrachloride are oxidized by reaction with water (H2O) in an oxyhydrogen flame. In outside vapor deposition the glass is deposited onto a solid rod, which is removed before further processing. In vapor axial deposition, a short seed rod is used, and a porous preform, whose length is not limited by the size of the source rod, is built up on its end. The porous preform is consolidated into a transparent, solid preform by heating to about 1800K (1500Â °C, 2800Â °F). The preform, however constructed, is then placed in a device known as a drawing tower, where the preform tip is heated and the optic fiber is pulled out as a string. By measuring the resultant fiber width, the tension on the fiber can be controlled to maintain the fiber thickness. Principle of operation:- An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide (nonconducting waveguide) that transmits light along its axis, by the process of total internal reflection. The fiber consists of a core surrounded by a cladding layer, both of which are made of dielectric materials. To confine the optical signal in the core, the refractive index of the core must be greater than that of the cladding. The boundary between the core and cladding may either be abrupt, in step-index fiber, or gradual, in graded-index fiber. Index of refraction: The index of refraction is a way of measuring the speed of light in a material. Light travels fastest in a vacuum, such as outer space. The actual speed of light in a vacuum is about 300,000 kilometres (186 thousand miles) per second. Index of refraction is calculated by dividing the speed of light in a vacuum by the speed of light in some other medium. The index of refraction of a vacuum is therefore 1, by definition. The typical value for the cladding of an optical fiber is 1.46. The core value is typically 1.48. The larger the index of refraction, the slower light travels in that medium. From this information, a good rule of thumb is that signal using optical fiber for communication will travel at around 200 million meters per second. Or to put it another way, to travel 1000 kilometers in fiber, the signal will take 5 milliseconds to propagate. Thus a phone call carried by fiber between Sydney and New York, a 12000 kilometer distance, means that there is an absolute minimum delay of 60 milliseconds (or around 1/16th of a second) between when one caller speaks to when the other hears. (Of course the fiber in this case will probably travel a longer route, and there will be additional delays due to communication equipment switching and the process of encoding and decoding the voice onto the fiber). Total internal reflection: When light traveling in a dense medium hits a boundary at a steep angle (larger than the critical angle for the boundary), the light will be completely reflected. This effect is used in optical fibers to confine light in the core. Light travels along the fiber bouncing back and forth off of the boundary. Because the light must strike the boundary with an angle greater than the critical angle, only light that enters the fiber within a certain range of angles can travel down the fiber without leaking out. This range of angles is called the acceptance cone of the fiber. The size of this acceptance cone is a function of the refractive index difference between the fibers core and cladding. In simpler terms, there is a maximum angle from the fiber axis at which light may enter the fiber so that it will propagate, or travel, in the core of the fiber. The sine of this maximum angle is the numerical aperture (NA) of the fiber. Fiber with a larger NA requires less precision to splice and work with than fiber with a smaller NA. Single-mode fiber has a small NA. TYPES OF FIBRE OPTICS:- Multi-mode fiber:- Fibers which support many propagation paths or transverse modes are called multi-mode fibers (MMF). Multi-mode fibers generally have a larger core diameter, and are used for short-distance communication links and for applications where high power must be transmitted. Fiber with large core diameter may be analyzed by geometrical optics. Such fiber is called multi-mode fiber. from the electromagnetic analysis . In a step-index multi-mode fiber, rays of light are guided along the fiber core by total internal reflection. Rays that meet the core-cladding boundary at a high angle , greater than the critical angle for this boundary, are completely reflected. The critical angle (minimum angle for total internal reflection) is determined by the difference in index of refraction between the core and cladding materials. Rays that meet the boundary at a low angle are refracted from the core into the cladding, and do not convey light and hence information along the fiber. The critical angle determines the acceptance angle of the fiber, often reported as a numerical aperture. A high numerical aperture allows light to propagate down the fiber in rays both close to the axis and at various angles, allowing efficient coupling of light into the fiber. However, this high numerical aperture increases the amount of dispersion as rays at different angles have different path lengths and therefore take different times to traverse the fiber. Single-mode fiber:- Those which can only support a single mode are called single-mode fibers (SMF). Single-mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than 550meters (1,800ft). The structure of a typical single-mode fiber. Core: 8Â µm diameter Cladding: 125Â µm dia. Buffer: 250Â µm dia. Jacket: 400Â µm dia. Fiber with a core diameter less than about ten times the wavelength of the propagating light cannot be modeled using geometric optics. Instead, it must be analyzed as an electromagnetic structure, by solution of Maxwells equations as reduced to the electromagnetic wave equation. The electromagnetic analysis may also be required to understand behaviors such as speckle that occur when coherent light propagates in multi-mode fiber. As an optical waveguide, the fiber supports one or more confined transverse modes by which light can propagate along the fiber. Fiber supporting only one mode is called single-mode or mono-mode fiber. The most common type of single-mode fiber has a core diameter of 8-10 micrometers and is designed for use in the near infrared. The mode structure depends on the wavelength of the light used, so that this fiber actually supports a small number of additional modes at visible wavelengths. Multi-mode fiber, by comparison, is manufactured with core diameters as small as 50 micrometers and as large as hundreds of micrometers. The normalized frequency V for this fiber should be less than the first zero of the Bessel function J0 (approximately 2.405). Special-purpose fiber: Some special-purpose optical fiber is constructed with a non-cylindrical core and/or cladding layer, usually with an elliptical or rectangular cross-section. These include polarization-maintaining fiber and fiber designed to suppress whispering gallery mode propagation. Photonic-crystal fiber is made with a regular pattern of index variation (often in the form of cylindrical holes that run along the length of the fiber). Such fiber uses diffraction effects instead of or in addition to total internal reflection, to confine light to the fibers core. The properties of the fiber can be tailored to a wide variety of applications. APPLICATIONS OF FIBRE OPTICS:- Optical fiber communication: Optical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication and networking because it is flexible and can be bundled as cables. It is especially advantageous for long-distance communications, because light propagates through the fiber with little attenuation compared to electrical cables. This allows long distances to be spanned with few repeaters. Additionally, the per-channel light signals propagating in the fiber have been modulated at rates as high as 111 gigabits per second by NTT, although 10 or 40Gb/s is typical in deployed systems. Each fiber can carry many independent channels, each using a different wavelength of light (wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)). The net data rate (data rate without overhead bytes) per fiber is the per-channel data rate reduced by the FEC overhead, multiplied by the number of channels. For short distance applications, such as creating a network within an office building, fiber-optic cabling can be used to save space in cable ducts. This is because a single fiber can often carry much more data than many electrical cables, such as 4 pair Cat-5 Ethernet cabling. Fiber is also immune to electrical interference; there is no cross-talk between signals in different cables and no pickup of environmental noise. Non-armored fiber cables do not conduct electricity, which makes fiber a good solution for protecting communications equipment located in high voltage environments such as power generation facilities, or metal communication structures prone to lightning strikes. They can also be used in environments where explosive fumes are present, without danger of ignition. Wiretapping is more difficult compared to electrical connections, and there are concentric dual core fibers that are said to be tap-proof. Fiber optic sensors :- Fibers have many uses in remote sensing. In some applications, the sensor is itself an optical fiber. In other cases, fiber is used to connect a non-fiberoptic sensor to a measurement system. Depending on the application, fiber may be used because of its small size, or the fact that no electrical power is needed at the remote location, or because many sensors can be multiplexed along the length of a fiber by using different wavelengths of light for each sensor, or by sensing the time delay as light passes along the fiber through each sensor. Time delay can be determined using a device such as an optical time-domain reflectometer. Optical fibers can be used as sensors to measure strain, temperature, pressure and other quantities by modifying a fiber so that the quantity to be measured modulates the intensity, phase, polarization, wavelength or transit time of light in the fiber. Sensors that vary the intensity of light are the simplest, since only a simple source and detector are required. A particularly useful feature of such fiber optic sensors is that they can, if required, provide distributed sensing over distances of up to one meter. Extrinsic fiber optic sensors use an optical fiber cable, normally a multi-mode one, to transmit modulated light from either a non-fiber optical sensor, or an electronic sensor connected to an optical transmitter. A major benefit of extrinsic sensors is their ability to reach places which are otherwise inaccessible. An example is the measurement of temperature inside aircraft jet engines by using a fiber to transmit radiation into a radiation pyrometer located outside the engine. Extrinsic sensors can also be used in the same way to measure the internal temperature of electrical transformers, where the extreme electromagnetic fields present make other measurement techniques impossible. Extrinsic sensors are used to measure vibration, rotation, displacement, velocity, acceleration, torque, and twisting. Other uses of optical fibers:- Light reflected from optical fiber illuminates exhibited model Fibers are widely used in illumination applications. They are used as light guides in medical and other applications where bright light needs to be shone on a target without a clear line-of-sight path. In some buildings, optical fibers are used to route sunlight from the roof to other parts of the building . Optical fiber illumination is also used for decorative applications, including signs, art, and artificial Christmas trees. Swarovski boutiques use optical fibers to illuminate their crystal showcases from many different angles while only employing one light source. Optical fiber is an intrinsic part of the light-transmitting concrete building product, LiTraCon. Optical fiber is also used in imaging optics. A coherent bundle of fibers is used, sometimes along with lenses, for a long, thin imaging device called an endoscope, which is used to view objects through a small hole. Medical endoscopes are used for minimally invasive exploratory or surgical procedures (endoscopy). Industrial endoscopes used for inspecting anything hard to reach, such as jet engine interiors. In spectroscopy, optical fiber bundles are used to transmit light from a spectrometer to a substance which cannot be placed inside the spectrometer itself, in order to analyze its composition. A spectrometer analyzes substances by bouncing light off of and through them. By using fibers, a spectrometer can be used to study objects that are too large to fit inside, or gasses, or reactions which occur in pressure vessels. An optical fiber doped with certain rare earth elements such as erbium can be used as the gain medium of a laser or optical amplifier. Rare-earth doped optical fibers can be used to provide signal amplification by splicing a short section of doped fiber into a regular (undoped) optical fiber line. The doped fiber is optically pumped with a second laser wavelength that is coupled into the line in addition to the signal wave. Both wavelengths of light are transmitted through the doped fiber, which transfers energy from the second pump wavelength to the signal wave. The process that causes the amplification is stimulated emission. Optical fibers doped with a wavelength shifter are used to collect scintillation light in physics experiments Optical fiber can be used to supply a low level of power (around one watt) to electronics situated in a difficult electrical environment. Examples of this are electronics in high-powered antenna elements and measurement devices used in high voltage transmission equipment. USES:- Optical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic communications, which permits transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data rates) than other forms of communications. Fibers are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along them with less loss, and they are also immune to electromagnetic interference. Fibers are also used for illumination, and are wrapped in bundles so they can be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in tight spaces. Specially designed fibers are used for a variety of other applications, including sensors and fiber lasers. Light is kept in the core of the optical fiber by total internal reflection. This causes the fiber to act as a waveguide. ADVANTAGES OF FIBRE OPTICS: We knowthe electrical signals travel pretty well in metal cables but nothing compares to light inoptical fibre. If we have to list the most outstanding advantages of using light as a carrier and optical fibres as transmission channels these may be some of them: Great bandwidth available to transmit information. You can easily use many GHz of bandwidth limitations being mostly related to electronics in the transmitters and the receivers. Low attenuation of the light travelling through optical fibres. Light can travel many kilometres in an optical fibre with little attenuation and without using amplifiers/repeaters or having them spaced a lot more than amplifiers in coaxial cables for example. Immunity to interferences. Optical fibres are made of glass not of any metal which makes them immune to any kind of electromagnetic interference. Galvanic isolation. Since they are not metallic they dont establish electrical contactbetween emitter and receiver nor create any capacitance along the length of the cable. REFERENCES:- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber http://www.educypedia.be/electronics/cablingfibers.htm http://www.protelturkey.com/teknik/fo/IntroToFOMeas.pdf